Choline and Betaine Levels in Plasma Mirror Choline Intake in Very Preterm Infants.

Choline is essential for cell membrane formation and methyl transfer reactions, impacting parenchymal and neurological development. It is therefore enriched via placental transfer, and fetal plasma concentrations are high. In spite of the greater needs of very low birth weight infants (VLBWI), choline content of breast milk after preterm delivery is lower (median (p25-75): 158 mg/L (61-360 mg/L) compared to term delivery (258 mg/L (142-343 mg/L)). Even preterm formula or fortified breast milk currently provide insufficient choline to achieve physiological plasma concentrations. This secondary analysis of a randomized controlled trial comparing growth of VLBWI with different levels of enteral protein supply aimed to investigate whether increased enteral choline intake results in increased plasma choline, betaine and phosphatidylcholine concentrations. We measured total choline content of breast milk from 33 mothers of 34 VLBWI. Enteral choline intake from administered breast milk, formula and fortifier was related to the respective plasma choline, betaine and phosphatidylcholine concentrations. Plasma choline and betaine levels in VLBWI correlated directly with enteral choline intake, but administered choline was insufficient to achieve physiological (fetus-like) concentrations. Hence, optimizing maternal choline status, and the choline content of milk and fortifiers, is suggested to increase plasma concentrations of choline, ameliorate the choline deficit and improve growth and long-term development of VLBWI.

Different choline supplement metabolism in adults using deuterium labelling.

BACKGROUND: Choline deficiency leads to pathologies particularly of the liver, brain and lung. Adequate supply is important for preterm infants and patients with cystic fibrosis. We analysed the assimilation of four different enterally administered deuterium-labelled (D9-) choline supplements in adults. METHODS: Prospective randomised cross-over study (11/2020-1/2022) in six healthy men, receiving four single doses of 2.7 mg/kg D9-choline equivalent each in the form of D9-choline chloride, D9-phosphorylcholine, D9-alpha-glycerophosphocholine (D9-GPC) or D9-1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-glycero-3-phosphoryl-choline (D9-POPC), in randomised order 6 weeks apart. Plasma was obtained at baseline (t = - 0.1 h) and at 0.5 h to 7d after intake. Concentrations of D9-choline and its D9-labelled metabolites were analysed by tandem mass spectrometry. Results are shown as median and interquartile range. RESULTS: Maximum D9-choline and D9-betaine concentrations were reached latest after D9-POPC administration versus other components. D9-POPC and D9-phosphorylcholine resulted in lower D9-trimethylamine (D9-TMAO) formation. The AUCs (0-7d) of plasma D9-PC concentration showed highest values after administration of D9-POPC. D9-POPC appeared in plasma after fatty acid remodelling, predominantly as D9-1-palmitoyl-2-linoleyl-PC (D9-PLPC), confirming cleavage to 1-palmitoyl-lyso-D9-PC and re-acylation with linoleic acid as the most prominent alimentary unsaturated fatty acid. CONCLUSION: There was a delayed increase in plasma D9-choline and D9-betaine after D9-POPC administration, with no differences in AUC over time. D9-POPC resulted in a higher AUC of D9-PC and virtually absent D9-TMAO levels. D9-POPC is remodelled according to enterocytic fatty acid availability. D9-POPC seems best suited as choline supplement to increase plasma PC concentrations, with PC as a carrier of choline and targeted fatty acid supply as required by organs. This study was registered at Deutsches Register Klinischer Studien (DRKS) (German Register for Clinical Studies), DRKS00020498, 22.01.2020. STUDY REGISTRATION: This study was registered at Deutsches Register Klinischer Studien (DRKS) (German Register for Clinical Studies), DRKS00020498.

Choline supplementation for preterm infants: metabolism of four Deuterium-labeled choline compounds.

BACKGROUND: Supply of choline is not guaranteed in current preterm infant nutrition. Choline serves in parenchyma formation by membrane phosphatidylcholine (PC), plasma transport of poly-unsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) via PC, and methylation processes via betaine. PUFA-PC concentrations are high in brain, liver and lung, and deficiency may result in developmental disorders. We compared different deuterated (D9-) choline components for kinetics of D9-choline, D9-betaine and D9-PC. METHODS: Prospective study (1/2021-12/2021) in 32 enterally fed preterm infants (28 0/7-32 0/7 weeks gestation). Patients were randomized to receive enterally a single dose of 2.7 mg/kg D9-choline-equivalent as D9-choline chloride, D9-phosphoryl-choline, D9-glycerophosphorylcholine (D9-GPC) or D9-1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-PC(D9-POPC), followed by blood sampling at 1 + 24 h or 12 + 60 h after administration. Plasma concentrations were analyzed by tandem mass spectrometry. Results are expressed as median (25th/75th percentile). RESULTS: At 1 h, plasma D9-choline was 1.8 (0.9/2.2) µmol/L, 1.3 (0.9/1.5) µmol/L and 1.2 (0.7/1.4) µmol/L for D9-choline chloride, D9-GPC and D9-phosphoryl-choline, respectively. D9-POPC did not result in plasma D9-choline. Plasma D9-betaine was maximal at 12 h, with lowest concentrations after D9-POPC. Maximum plasma D9-PC values at 12 h were the highest after D9-POPC (14.4 (9.1/18.9) µmol/L), compared to the other components (D9-choline chloride: 8.1 [5.6/9.9] µmol/L; D9-GPC: 8.4 (6.2/10.3) µmol/L; D9-phosphoryl-choline: 9.8 (8.6/14.5) µmol/L). Predominance of D9-PC comprising linoleic, rather than oleic acid, indicated fatty-acyl remodeling of administered D9-POPC prior to systemic delivery. CONCLUSION: D9-Choline chloride, D9-GPC and D9-phosphoryl-choline equally increased plasma D9-choline and D9-betaine. D9-POPC shifted metabolism from D9-betaine to D9-PC. Combined supplementation of GPC and (PO) PC may be best suited to optimize choline supply in preterm infants. Due to fatty acid remodeling of (PO) PC during its assimilation, PUFA co-supplementation with (PO) PC may increase PUFA-delivery to critical organs. This study was registered (22.01.2020) at the Deutsches Register Klinischer Studien (DRKS) (German Register for Clinical Studies), DRKS00020502. STUDY REGISTRATION: This study was registered at the Deutsches Register Klinischer Studien (DRKS) (German Register for Clinical Studies), DRKS00020502.

Choline Kinetics in Neonatal Liver, Brain and Lung-Lessons from a Rodent Model for Neonatal Care.

Choline requirements are high in the rapidly growing fetus and preterm infant, mainly serving phosphatidylcholine (PC) synthesis for parenchymal growth and one-carbon metabolism via betaine. However, choline metabolism in critical organs during rapid growth is poorly understood. Therefore, we investigated the kinetics of D9-choline and its metabolites in the liver, plasma, brain and lung in 14 d old rats. Animals were intraperitoneally injected with 50 mg/kg D9-choline chloride and sacrificed after 1.5 h, 6 h and 24 h. Liver, plasma, lungs, cerebrum and cerebellum were analyzed for D9-choline metabolites, using tandem mass spectrometry. In target organs, D9-PC and D9-betaine comprised 15.1 ± 1.3% and 9.9 ± 1.2% of applied D9-choline at 1.5 h. D9-PC peaked at 1.5 h in all organs, and decreased from 1.5-6 h in the liver and lung, but not in the brain. Whereas D9-labeled PC precursors were virtually absent beyond 6 h, D9-PC increased in the brain and lung from 6 h to 24 h (9- and 2.5-fold, respectively) at the expense of the liver, suggesting PC uptake from the liver via plasma rather than local synthesis. Kinetics of D9-PC sub-groups suggested preferential hepatic secretion of linoleoyl-PC and acyl remodeling in target organs. D9-betaine showed rapid turnover and served low-level endogenous (D3-)choline synthesis. In conclusion, in neonatal rats, exogenous choline is rapidly metabolized to PC by all organs. The liver supplies the brain and lung directly with PC, followed by organotypic acyl remodeling. A major fraction of choline is converted to betaine, feeding the one-carbon pool and this must be taken into account when calculating choline requirements.

Differential metabolism of choline supplements in adult volunteers.

BACKGROUND: Adequate intake of choline is essential for growth and homeostasis, but its supply does often not meet requirements. Choline deficiency decreases phosphatidylcholine (PC) and betaine synthesis, resulting in organ pathology, especially of liver, lung, and brain. This is of particular clinical importance in preterm infants and cystic fibrosis patients. We compared four different choline supplements for their impact on plasma concentration and kinetics of choline, betaine as a methyl donor and trimethylamine oxide (TMAO) as a marker of bacterial degradation prior to absorption. METHODS: Prospective randomized cross-over study (1/2020-4/2020) in six healthy adult men. Participants received a single dose of 550 mg/d choline equivalent in the form of choline chloride, choline bitartrate, α-glycerophosphocholine (GPC), and egg-PC in randomized sequence at least 1 week apart. Blood was taken from t = - 0.1-6 h after supplement intake. Choline, betaine, TMAO, and total PC concentrations were analyzed by tandem mass spectrometry. Results are shown as medians and interquartile range. RESULTS: There was no difference in the AUC of choline plasma concentrations after intake of the different supplements. Individual plasma kinetics of choline and betaine differed and concentrations peaked latest for PC (at ≈3 h). All supplements similarly increased plasma betaine. All water-soluble supplements rapidly increased TMAO, whereas egg-PC did not. CONCLUSION: All supplements tested rapidly increased choline and betaine levels to a similar extent, with egg-PC showing the latest peak. Assuming that TMAO may have undesirable effects, egg-PC might be best suited for choline supplementation in adults. STUDY REGISTRATION: This study was registered at "Deutsches Register Klinischer Studien" (DRKS) (German Register for Clinical Studies), 17.01.2020, DRKS00020454.

Resolution of severe hepatosteatosis in a cystic fibrosis patient with multifactorial choline deficiency: A case report.

In cystic fibrosis (CF), 85% to 90% of patients develop exocrine pancreatic insufficiency. Despite enzyme substitution, low pancreatic phospholipase A2 (sPLaseA2-IB) activity causes fecal loss of bile phosphatidylcholine and choline deficiency. We report on a female patient who has CF and progressive hepatosteatosis from 4.5 y onward. At 22.3 y, the liver comprised 27% fat (2385 mL volume) and transaminases were strongly increased. Plasma choline was 1.9 µmol/L (normal: 8-12 mol/L). Supplementation with 3 ×  1g/d choline chloride decreased liver fat and volume (3 mo: 8.2%; 1912 mL) and normalized transaminases. Plasma choline increased to only 5.6 µmol/L upon supplementation, with high trimethylamine oxide levels (12-35 µmol/L; normal: 3 ± 1 mol/L) proving intestinal microbial choline degradation. The patient was homozygous for rs12325817, a frequent single-nucleotide polymorphism in the PEMT gene, associated with severe hepatosteatosis in response to choline deficiency. Resolution of steatosis required 2 y (4.5% fat). Discontinuation/resumption of choline supplementation resulted in rapid relapse/resolution of steatosis, increased transaminases, and abdominal pain.

Choline Content of Term and Preterm Infant Formulae Compared to Expressed Breast Milk-How Do We Justify the Discrepancies?

Choline/phosphatidylcholine concentrations are tightly regulated in all organs and secretions. During rapid organ growth in the third trimester, choline requirement is particularly high. Adequate choline intake is 17-18 mg/kg/day in term infants, whereas ~50-60 mg/kg/day is required to achieve fetal plasma concentrations in preterm infants. Whereas free choline is supplied via the placenta, other choline carriers characterize enteral feeding. We therefore quantified the concentrations and types of choline carriers and choline-related components in various infant formulae and fortifiers compared to breast milk, and calculated the supply at full feeds (150 mL/kg/day) using tandem mass spectrometry. Choline concentration in formula ranged from values below to far above that of breastmilk. Humana 0-VLB (2015: 60.7 mg/150 mL; 2020: 27.3 mg/150 mL), Aptamil-Prematil (2020: 34.7 mg/150 mL), Aptamil-Prematil HA (2020: 37.6 mg/150 mL) for preterm infants with weights < 1800 g, and Humana 0 (2020: 41.6 mg/150 mL) for those > 1800 g, comprised the highest values in formulae studied. Formulae mostly were rich in free choline or phosphatidylcholine rather than glycerophosphocholine and phosphocholine (predominating in human milk). Most formulae (150 mL/kg/day) do not supply the amounts and physiologic components of choline required to achieve fetal plasma choline concentrations. A revision of choline content in formulae and breast milk fortifiers and a clear declaration of the choline components in formulae is required to enable informed choices.

Combined choline and DHA supplementation: a randomized controlled trial.

OBJECTIVE: Choline and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) are essential nutrients for preterm infant development. They are metabolically linked via phosphatidylcholine (PC), a constitutive plasma membrane lipid and the major transport form of DHA in plasma. Plasma choline and DHA-PC concentrations rapidly decline after preterm birth. To improve preterm infant nutrition, we evaluated combined compared to exclusive choline and DHA supplementation, and standard feeding. DESIGN: Randomized partially blinded single-center trial. SETTING: Neonatal tertiary referral center in Tübingen, Germany. PATIENTS: 24 inborn preterm infants < 32 week postmenstrual age. INTERVENTIONS: Standard nutrition (control) or, additionally, enteral choline (30 mg/kg/day), DHA (60 mg/kg/day), or both for 10 days. Single enteral administration of 3.6 mg/kg [methyl-D9-] choline chloride as a tracer at 7.5 days. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Primary outcome variable was plasma choline following 7 days of supplementation. Deuterated and unlabeled choline metabolites, DHA-PC, and other PC species were secondary outcome variables. RESULTS: Choline supplementation increased plasma choline to near-fetal concentrations [35.4 (32.8-41.7) µmol/L vs. 17.8 (16.1-22.4) µmol/L, p < 0.01] and decreased D9-choline enrichment of PC. Single DHA treatment decreased DHA in PC relative to total lipid [66 (60-68)% vs. 78 (74-80)%; p < 0.01], which was prevented by choline. DHA alone increased DHA-PC only by 35 (26-45)%, but combined treatment by 63 (49-74)% (p < 0.001). D9-choline enrichment showed preferential synthesis of PC containing linoleic acid. PC synthesis via phosphatidylethanolamine methylation resulted in preferential synthesis of DHA-containing D3-PC, which was increased by choline supplementation. CONCLUSIONS: 30 mg/kg/day additional choline supplementation increases plasma choline to near-fetal concentrations, dilutes the D9-choline tracer via increased precursor concentrations and improves DHA homeostasis in preterm infants. TRIAL REGISTRATION: clinicaltrials.gov. Identifier: NCT02509728.

Choline Supplementation in Cystic Fibrosis-The Metabolic and Clinical Impact.

BACKGROUND: Choline is essential for the synthesis of liver phosphatidylcholine (PC), parenchymal maintenance, bile formation, and lipoprotein assembly to secrete triglycerides. In choline deficiency, the liver accretes choline/PC at the expense of lung tissue, thereby impairing pulmonary PC homoeostasis. In cystic fibrosis (CF), exocrine pancreas insufficiency results in impaired cleavage of bile PC and subsequent fecal choline loss. In these patients, the plasma choline concentration is low and correlates with lung function. We therefore investigated the effect of choline supplementation on plasma choline/PC concentration and metabolism, lung function, and liver fat. METHODS: 10 adult male CF patients were recruited (11/2014⁻1/2016), and orally supplemented with 3 × 1 g choline chloride for 84 (84⁻91) days. Pre-/post-supplementation, patients were spiked with 3.6 mg/kg [methyl-D9]choline chloride to assess choline/PC metabolism. Mass spectrometry, spirometry, and hepatic nuclear resonance spectrometry served for analysis. RESULTS: Supplementation increased plasma choline from 4.8 (4.1⁻6.2) µmol/L to 10.5 (8.5⁻15.5) µmol/L at d84 (p < 0.01). Whereas plasma PC concentration remained unchanged, D9-labeled PC was decreased (12.2 [10.5⁻18.3] µmol/L vs. 17.7 [15.5⁻22.4] µmol/L, p < 0.01), indicating D9-tracer dilution due to higher choline pools. Supplementation increased Forced Expiratory Volume in 1 second percent of predicted (ppFEV1) from 70.0 (50.9⁻74.8)% to 78.3 (60.1⁻83.9)% (p < 0.05), and decreased liver fat from 1.58 (0.37⁻8.82)% to 0.84 (0.56⁻1.17)% (p < 0.01). Plasma choline returned to baseline concentration within 60 h. CONCLUSIONS: Choline supplementation normalized plasma choline concentration and increased choline-containing PC precursor pools in adult CF patients. Improved lung function and decreased liver fat suggest that in CF correcting choline deficiency is clinically important. Choline supplementation of CF patients should be further investigated in randomized, placebo-controlled trials.

Transport of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in preterm infant plasma is dominated by phosphatidylcholine.

BACKGROUND: Docosahexaenoic (C22:6) and arachidonic (C20:4) acids are long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFA) essential to neonatal development, being present in the glycerophospholipids of all organs, particularly the brain. In plasma, LC-PUFAs are mainly present in lipoprotein lipids, which are neutral lipids (triglycerides and cholesterol esters) and glycerophospholipids, like choline containing phosphatidylcholine (PC). PURPOSE: To guide future supplementation strategies of C22:6 and C20:4 in combination with choline, we determined the distribution of C20:4 and C22:6 between PC and neutral lipid. METHODS: Preterm infant plasma (N = 59, postmenstrual age [PMA] 33.9 wk (32.4-36.0)) and cord plasma (N = 34, PMA 34.0 wk (30.86-38.4)) were investigated. PC and neutral lipids were extracted and analyzed using tandem mass spectrometry and gas chromatography, respectively. Data are reported as medians and 25th/75th percentiles. RESULTS: In cord blood, C20:4-PC and C22:6-PC comprised 36.1% (34.2-38.6) and 10.2% (8.8-12.8) of total PC, respectively. In preterm infant plasma, values were only 20.8% (19.2-23.1) and 5.7% (5.2-6.0), respectively (p < 0.001 each). Nevertheless, in preterm infant plasma, 80.6% (77.6-83.0) of C20:4 and 86.0% (83.0-88.9) of C22:6 were found in PC. These values exceeded the proportions of C20:4 and C22:6 in PC of cord plasma [71.3% (67.8-72.9) and 79.2% (75.2-85.4), respectively] (p < 0.0001 each). CONCLUSION: Irrespective of the low proportions of C20:4-PC and C22:6-PC in preterm infant plasma lipids, PC is the major transporter for C20:4 and C22:6. Our data support the hypotheses that choline deficiency may impair end-organ availability of these LC-PUFA in preterm infants. Therefore, supplementation of C20:4 and C22:6 might better be accompanied by choline supplementation.

Choline and polyunsaturated fatty acids in preterm infants' maternal milk.

BACKGROUND: Choline, docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), and arachidonic acid (ARA) are essential to fetal development, particularly of the brain. These components are actively enriched in the fetus. Deprivation from placental supply may therefore result in impaired accretion in preterm infants. OBJECTIVE: To determine choline, choline metabolites, DHA, and ARA in human breast milk (BM) of preterm infants compared to BM of term born infants. DESIGN: We collected expressed BM samples from 34 mothers (N = 353; postnatal day 6-85), who had delivered 35 preterm infants undergoing neonatal intensive care (postmenstrual age 30 weeks, range 25.4-32.0), and from mothers after term delivery (N = 9; postnatal day 6-118). Target metabolites were analyzed using tandem mass spectrometry and gas chromatography and reported as medians and 25th/75th percentiles. RESULTS: In BM, choline was mainly present in the form of phosphocholine and glycerophosphocholine, followed by free choline, phosphatidylcholine, sphingomyelin, and lyso-phosphatidylcholine. In preterm infants' BM total choline ranged from 61 to 360 mg/L (median: 158 mg/L) and was decreased compared to term infants' BM (range 142-343 mg/L; median: 258 mg/L; p < 0.01). ARA and DHA comprised 0.81 (range: 0.46-1.60) and 0.43 (0.15-2.42) % of total preterm BM lipids, whereas term BM values were 0.68 (0.52-0.88) and 0.35 (0.18-0.75) %, respectively. Concentrations of all target parameters decreased after birth, and frequently 150 ml/kg/d BM did not meet the estimated fetal accretion rates. CONCLUSIONS: Following preterm delivery, BM choline concentrations are lower, whereas ARA and DHA levels are comparable versus term delivery. Based on these findings we suggest a combined supplementation of preterm infants' BM with choline, ARA and DHA combined to improve the nutritional status of preterm infants. STUDY REGISTRATION: This study was registered at www.clinicaltrials.gov. Identifier: NCT01773902.