Differential regulation of CD40-mediated human B cell responses by antibodies directed against different CD40 epitopes.

Ligation of CD40 using anti-CD40 or soluble CD40-ligand activates numerous intracellular kinases which transduce signals to the nucleus. The nature whereby these signaling events are coupled to distal functional events in B cells is poorly understood. In this study, using anti-CD40 monoclonal antibodies which recognize different epitopes on CD40, we compare the ability to activate the stress-activated protein kinases (SAPK) such as c-Jun NH(2) terminal kinase and p38 in human B cells with CD40 function. Activation of the SAPK pathway correlated with levels of activation of Rel/NF-kappaB transcription factors, but did not appear to be associated with rescue from anti-IgM induced apoptosis by suppressing caspase (CPP32) activity. Somewhat surprisingly, in the presence of IL-4, those antibodies to CD40 which failed to activate SAPK were most active in IgE production. IgE production was augmented in the presence of wortmannin. These studies suggest that rescue from apoptosis and IgE production mediated via CD40 may be independent of SAPK activation, induction of Rel/NF-kappaB, or suppression of CPP32 and that IgE production is, at least in part, regulated by signaling pathways that are dependent on phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase.

4-1BB costimulatory signals preferentially induce CD8+ T cell proliferation and lead to the amplification in vivo of cytotoxic T cell responses.

The 4-1BB receptor is an inducible type I membrane protein and member of the tumor necrosis factor receptor (TNFR) superfamily that is rapidly expressed on the surface of CD4+ and CD8+ T cells after antigen- or mitogen-induced activation. Cross-linking of 4-1BB and the T cell receptor (TCR) on activated T cells has been shown to deliver a costimulatory signal to T cells. Here, we expand upon previously published studies by demonstrating that CD8+ T cells when compared with CD4+ T cells are preferentially responsive to both early activation events and proliferative signals provided via the TCR and 4-1BB. In comparison, CD28-mediated costimulatory signals appear to function in a reciprocal manner to those induced through 4-1BB costimulation. In vivo examination of the effects of anti-4-1BB monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) on antigen-induced T cell activation have shown that the administration of epitope-specific anti-4-1BB mAbs amplified the generation of H-2d-specific cytotoxic T cells in a murine model of acute graft versus host disease (GVHD) and enhanced the rapidity of cardiac allograft or skin transplant rejection in mice. Cytokine analysis of in vitro activated CD4+ and CD8+ T cells revealed that anti-4-1BB costimulation markedly enhanced interferon-gamma production by CD8+ T cells and that anti-4-1BB mediated proliferation of CD8+ T cells appears to be IL-2 independent. The results of these studies suggest that regulatory signals delivered by the 4-1BB receptor play an important role in the regulation of cytotoxic T cells in cellular immune responses to antigen.

Characterization of mouse ALCAM (CD166): the CD6-binding domain is conserved in different homologs and mediates cross-species binding.

Activated leukocyte cell adhesion molecule (ALCAM; CD166) is a member of the immunoglobulin gene superfamily (IgSF) which is expressed by activated leukocytes and thymic epithelial cells and is a ligand for the lymphocyte antigen CD6. Herein, we report on the isolation and characterization of cDNA clones encoding mouse ALCAM (mALCAM). Comparison of the predicted amino acid sequence of mALCAM and human ALCAM (hALCAM) showed an overall identity of 93%. Binding studies with truncated forms of the extracellular region of mALCAM showed that the CD6 binding site is located in the N-terminal Ig-like domain and that mALCAM is capable of binding both human and mouse CD6. Mutagenesis studies on hALCAM suggested that residues critical for CD6 binding map to the predicted A'GFCC'C" beta-sheet of ALCAM's N-terminal binding domain. Residue differences in the N-terminal domains of mALCAM and hALCAM were analyzed with the aid of a molecular model of ALCAM. All residues critical for CD6 binding are conserved in both mALCAM and hALCAM, whereas residue differences map to the predicted BED face which is opposite the CD6 binding site on hALCAM. These findings provide a molecular rationale for the observed cross-species CD6/ALCAM interaction and the apparent inability to generate monoclonal antibodies (mAb) against the CD6 binding site. RNA blot analysis showed that mRNA transcripts encoding mALCAM are expressed in the brain, lung, liver, and the kidney, as well as by activated leukocytes and a number of cell lines. A rat mAb specific for mALCAM was produced and by two-color immunofluorescence studies was shown to bind to both activated CD4+ and CD8+ T cells.

Identification of residues in CD6 which are critical for ligand binding.

CD6 is a member of the scavenger receptor cysteine rich protein superfamily (SRCRSF). This family includes many cell surface proteins whose three-dimensional structures and functions are presently not well understood. The extracellular region of CD6 includes 3 SRCR domains. The membrane proximal SRCR domain specifically binds the activated leukocyte cell adhesion molecule (ALCAM), a CD6 ligand belonging to the immunoglobulin superfamily. CD6-ALCAM interactions mediate immune cell adhesion and are implicated in T cell maturation and the regulation of T cell function. On the basis of SRCRSF sequence comparison, a mutagenesis analysis of the membrane proximal SRCR domain of CD6 (CD6D3) has been carried out. Fifteen mutants were characterized. Three CD6 residues were identified in a region of low sequence conservation which, when mutated, abolish ligand binding but not the binding to a panel of conformationally sensitive anti-CD6 mAbs. This study provides the first analysis of residues critical for ligand binding to a member of the SRCRSF.

Agonistic activity of a CD40-specific single-chain Fv constructed from the variable regions of mAb G28-5.

A single-chain Fv (sFv) was expressed from the variable regions of the CD40-specific mAb G28-5. The molecule bound CD40 with a high affinity (2.2 nM) and was a monomer in solution. Surprisingly, G28-5 sFv was a potent CD40 agonist that rapidly crosslinked CD40 on the cell surface but did not crosslink CD40-Ig in solution. G28-5 sFv was a more potent agonist than G28-5 IgG and was able to stimulate CD40 responses by B cells and monocytes. G28-5 IgG partially blocked, whereas G28-5 sFv augmented CD40 responses during stimulation with natural ligand (gp39-CD8 fusion protein). These results indicate that the functional activity of ligands built from the binding site of G28-5 is highly dependent upon the size and physical properties of the molecule both in solution and on the cell surfaces.

The amino-terminal immunoglobulin-like domain of activated leukocyte cell adhesion molecule binds specifically to the membrane-proximal scavenger receptor cysteine-rich domain of CD6 with a 1:1 stoichiometry.

Activated leukocyte cell adhesion molecule (ALCAM) was recently identified as a ligand for CD6, a signaling receptor expressed on T cells, a subset of B cells, and some cells in the brain. Receptor-ligand binding assays, antibody blocking experiments, and examination of the tissue distribution of these two cell surface proteins suggest that CD6-ALCAM interactions play an important role in mediating the binding of thymocytes to thymic epithelial cells and of T cells to activated leukocytes. Presently, the details of CD6-ALCAM interactions and of signaling through CD6 are unknown. A series of truncated human ALCAM and CD6 immunoglobulin fusion proteins were produced and tested in different binding assays to analyze ALCAM-CD6 interactions in more detail. In this study, we report that the amino-terminal Ig-like domain of human ALCAM specifically binds to the third membrane-proximal scavenger receptor cysteine-rich (SRCR) domain of human CD6. Using thrombin-cleaved Ig fusion proteins containing single or multiple ALCAM or CD6 domains, we were able to determine that the stoichiometry of the interaction between the amino-terminal ALCAM domains and the membrane-proximal CD6 SRCR domain is 1:1. These results provide the first example of an Ig-like domain mediating an interaction with an SRCR domain.

Characterization of mouse CD6 with novel monoclonal antibodies which enhance the allogeneic mixed leukocyte reaction.

Human CD6 is a cell surface protein expressed by thymocytes, mature T cells, a subset of B cells and certain cells of the brain. On human T cells, CD6 has been shown to act as a co-stimulatory molecule which modulates T cell receptor (TCR)-mediated T cell activation. To study further the recently identified mouse CD6 (mCD6), we generated and characterized a set of anti-mCD6 mAb. Anti-mCD6 mAb recognizing the mCD6 scavenger receptor cysteine-rich (SRCR) extracellular domains 1 and 3 were identified. mAb against SRCR domain 3, but not domain 1, inhibited the interaction of CD6 with a recently identified ligand, activated leukocyte cell adhesion molecule (ALCAM). Immunohistochemical analysis indicated that mCD6 expression was largely localized to the T cell areas of lymphoid tissue and, as previously reported in the human, CD6 was also expressed by neurons. CD6 was highly expressed on mouse T cells isolated from the spleen, lymph node and thymus as demonstrated by two-color immunofluorescence analysis. The CD4+ and CD8+ cells in these lymphoid compartments expressed similar levels of CD6. Immunoprecipitation studies showed that mouse thymocytes predominantly express a CD6 isoform of approximately 130 kDa, while splenocytes predominantly express a CD6 isoform of approximately 100 kDa. Anti-mCD6 mAb enhanced allogeneic mixed leukocyte reactions (MLR), indicating that CD6-ALCAM interactions may regulate the proliferative capacity of T cells.

Analysis of gp39/CD40 interactions using molecular models and site-directed mutagenesis.

The interaction between gp39 (CD40L, TRAP, T-BAM) on activated T cells and mast cells and CD40 on antigen-presenting cells modulates immune responses. Gp39 and CD40 are homologous to tumor necrosis factor (TNF) and its receptor (TNFR), respectively. The TNF-beta/TNFR interaction has been analyzed on the basis of mutagenesis experiments and crystal structures. Using the interaction of TNF-beta/TNFR as a guide, we previously reported a site-directed mutagenesis study in which we identified residues in gp39 (K143, Y145) and CD40 (Y82, D84, N86) involved in gp39/CD40 interactions. Here we describe the use of the TNF-beta/TNFR complex crystal structure as a template to prepare molecular models of gp39, CD40, and their approximate interaction. The application of these models has allowed us to extend our mutagenesis analysis of gp39/CD40 interactions. These experiments have led to the identification of additional gp39 (Y146, R203, Q220) and CD40 (E74, E117) residues that contribute to the gp39/CD40 interaction. We also further explored the importance of gp39 residue Y145 and CD40 residue Y82 for the gp39/CD40 interaction by conservatively replacing these residues with Phe. The results of these studies have enabled us to approximately outline the binding sites in gp39 and CD40. It appears that the gp39/CD40 interaction is centered on at least two clusters of residues and involves residues of two adjacent gp39 monomers. The molecular regions involved in the gp39/CD40 interaction essentially correspond to those in the homologous TNF-beta/TNFR system.

The membrane-proximal scavenger receptor cysteine-rich domain of CD6 contains the activated leukocyte cell adhesion molecule binding site.

Binding studies with a CD6 immunoglobulin fusion protein (CD6 Rg) resulted in the identification and cloning of a CD6 ligand. This ligand was found to be a member of the immunoglobulin supergene family and was named ALCAM (activated leukocyte cell adhesion molecule). Cell adhesion assays showed that CD6-ALCAM interactions mediate thymocyte-thymic epithelium cell binding. ALCAM is also expressed by activated leukocytes and neurons and may be involved in interactions between T cells and activated leukocytes and between cells of the immune and nervous systems, respectively. Herein we describe the preparation of domain-specific murine CD6 Rg fusion proteins and show that the membrane-proximal SRCR (scavenger receptor cysteine-rich) domain of CD6 contains the ALCAM binding site. We also show that mAbs which bind to this domain preferentially block CD6-ALCAM binding. These results demonstrate that the membrane-proximal SRCR domain of CD6 is necessary for CD6 binding to ALCAM and provide the first direct evidence for the interaction of an SRCR domain with a ligand.

Identification of residues on CD40 and its ligand which are critical for the receptor-ligand interaction.

Interactions between gp39 (CD40L, TRAP, T-BAM) on activated T cells and CD40 on antigen-presenting cells play an important role in regulating antibody production by B cells, cytokine production by monocytes, and other immune responses which require T cell "help". Using structure-based sequence alignments, a molecular model of gp39, site-directed mutagenesis, and receptor-ligand binding assays, we have identified CD40 and gp39 surface residues which are important for receptor-ligand binding. Binding studies with CD40 or gp39 proteins containing single and double amino acid substitutions showed that CD40 residues Y82, D84, and N86 are involved in gp39 binding, while gp39 residues K143 and Y145 are important for CD40 binding. Analysis of the location of amino acid substitutions in the naturally occurring gp39 mutants expressed by the X-linked hyper-IgM (X-HIM) patients studied to date indicated the E129/G substitution found in the S128/R-E129/G double mutant affects a solvent-accessible residue which might participate in CD40/gp39 binding. Binding studies with E129/G and E129/A gp39 point mutants showed that this residue does not contribute directly to CD40/gp39 binding but that its substitution with a glycine disrupts the gp39 structure. Comparison of the gp39 and CD40 residues involved in receptor-ligand contacts with those previously identified as playing an important role in TNF-beta/TNFR binding suggests that some of the identified residues from contacts similar to those found in the TNF-beta/TNFR while others are unique to the CD40-gp39 interaction.

Therapeutic effects of a human antiflagella monoclonal antibody in a neutropenic murine model of Pseudomonas aeruginosa pneumonia.

Human immunoglobulin G1 (IgG1) monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) reactive with type-specific Pseudomonas aeruginosa lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and flagella were compared for their protective activities against Fisher immunotype 2 P. aeruginosa pneumonia in neutropenic mice. The activity of the antiflagella MAb at a dose of 500 micrograms per mouse was comparable to that of the anti-LPS MAb at the same dose. In vivo protection was correlated with bacterial density in the lung tissue and blood of infected mice. In vitro data suggested that the protective activity of the antiflagella MAb was due more to inhibition of bacterial motility than to opsonophagocytosis of bacteria by alveolar macrophages. In contrast, the protective activity of the anti-LPS MAb was primarily related to alveolar macrophage-mediated opsonophagocytosis. Antiflagella MAb at a dose of 500 micrograms combined with oral sparfloxacin at a subtherapeutic dose of 62.5 micrograms produced a significant increase in survival (P < 0.05) compared with that produced by either agent alone or no treatment. The additive effects between the antiflagella MAb and sparfloxacin at sub-MICs on the inhibitory effects of bacterial motility supported the in vivo effect of the combination. These data suggest that human isotype-matched antiflagella and anti-LPS MAbs have similar protective activities against Pseudomonas pneumonia in neutropenic mice, despite discrete mechanisms of antibody-matched protection. In addition, in vivo synergy was demonstrated between antiflagella MAb and sparfloxacin in this model.

Generation and characterization of murine antiflagellum monoclonal antibodies that are protective against lethal challenge with Pseudomonas aeruginosa.

Two murine monoclonal antibodies, IIG5 (IgG3) and IVE8 (IgG2a), that bind to Pseudomonas aeruginosa type a flagella and type b flagella, respectively, were prepared by conventional hybridoma methodology. Specificity of each monoclonal antibody for type a or type b flagella was demonstrated by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, indirect immunofluorescence, and immunoblotting. The percentage of P. aeruginosa isolates recognized by each monoclonal antibody was analyzed by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Among a panel of 257 flagellated P. aeruginosa clinical isolates, IIG5 bound to 67.7% of the isolates and IVE8 bound to another 30.7%, for a combined coverage of 98.4%. Inhibition of motility of P. aeruginosa by the monoclonal antibodies was observed in vitro in a soft agar assay and was dose dependent. The protective efficacy of IIG5 and IVE8 was examined in a mouse burn wound sepsis model. The antiflagellum monoclonal antibodies provided specific and significant prophylactic and therapeutic protection against lethal challenge with P. aeruginosa strains.

In vitro and in vivo activity of polyclonal and monoclonal human immunoglobulins G, M, and A against Pseudomonas aeruginosa lipopolysaccharide.

We evaluated the in vitro opsonophagocytic killing activity of monoclonal human immunoglobulin G (IgG), IgM, and IgA specific for Pseudomonas aeruginosa lipopolysaccharide and the in vivo protective capacity in neutropenic mice of both monoclonal and purified polyclonal IgG, IgM, and IgA. Monoclonal IgM was efficacious in mediating opsonophagocytic killing only in conjunction with complement, whereas monoclonal IgG opsonic killing was potentiated by complement, and monoclonal IgA opsonic killing was independent of complement. These findings are similar to those previously reported for purified polyclonal IgM, IgG, and IgA. The monoclonal and polyclonal immunoglobulins had comparable 50% protective doses in neutropenic mice (range, 0.28 to 0.46 microgram per mouse). The protective activity of IgM in neutropenic mice was abolished by cobra venom factor treatment, whereas IgG and IgA maintained efficacy in cobra venom factor-treated mice. These data indicate that all three major human serum immunoglobulin isotypes have opsonophagocytic and protective activities against P. aeruginosa, with a critical role for complement in the function of IgM.

Serological classification of Neisseria gonorrhoeae with monoclonal antibodies.

Hybrid cells producing monoclonal antibodies against antigens of Neisseria gonorrhoeae were obtained by the polyethylene glycol-mediated fusion of mouse myeloma cells and lymphocytes from mice immunized with gonococcal protein I or outer membrane proteins. From four fusions, 16 phenotypically stable, independently cloned hybrid cell lines were selected for continued study. Each of the cell lines produced a characteristically different monoclonal antibody which reacted in immunoprecipitation assays with a unique antigenic determinant on protein I of the outer membrane complex of the bacteria. In antibody binding, immunofluorescence, and coagglutination assays these antibodies each reacted with a restricted group of N. gonorrhoeae strains. None of the monoclonal antibodies reacted with 17 other different species of Neisseria or with Branhamella catarrhalis. When tested on 34 N. gonorrhoeae reference serotyping strains, the monoclonal antibodies demonstrated serological relationships between the strains which paralleled those observed with conventional polyvalent antisera. These antibodies now provide standardized reagents for the rapid and precise serological characterization of many strains of N. gonorrhoeae.

Monoclonal antibodies recognizing normal human T lymphocytes and malignant human B lymphocytes: a comparative study.

We have undertaken a direct comparison of 8 different murine monoclonal antibodies that recognize antigens shared by human T cells and certain malignant B cells. Immune precipitation, lysostripping, and competitive binding experiments indicate that the antigenic determinants detected by antibodies Leu 1, T101, 17F12, SC1, A50, OKT1, and 10.2 are closely associated on the same molecular species and may in fact be identical. The antigenic determinant recognized by antibody 12.1, which has properties similar to the 1 detected by other antibodies, is present on a distinct cell-surface molecule. Our results emphasize the importance of a quantitative direct comparison of different monoclonal antibodies in distinguishing newly reported antibodies from those already described. Such a comparison can resolve apparent discrepancies that arise either from methodologic variations or from differences in antibody avidity.

Thy-2: a murine thymocyte-brain alloantigen controlled by a gene linked to the major histocompatibility complex.

We describe a new murine cell-surface alloantigen, provisionally designated Thy-2, which is expressed primarily on thymocytes and brain tissue. Although Thy-2 is also expressed at lower levels on bone-marrow and spleen cells, this antigen does not appear to be present on lymph-node, liver, or red blood cells. Immunoprecipitation of surface-labeled thymocyte extracts from a variety of inbred strains reveals this antigen to be a single polypeptide of 150000 daltons. Quantitative membrane immunofluorescence demonstrates that Thy-2 is a minor cell-surface component which is present on the majority of thymocytes. Mice heterozygous at the Thy-2 locus express approximately 50 percent as much antigen as positive homozygotes. Expression of the Thy-2 alloantigen is controlled by a single semidominant gene located approximately 3 cM to the right of the H-2K locus on chromosome 17.

Identification of a human T lymphocyte surface protein associated with the E-rosette receptor.

We describe a new monoclonal murine antibody that reacts with a 50,000-mol wt polypeptide that appears to be present on all E-rosetting cells. We conclude that this antigen is either identical to or closely associated with the E receptor because of (a) the high degree of concordance between E-rosette formation and 9.6 antigen expression, (b) the inhibition of rosette formation by preincubation of cells with 9.6 antibody, and (c) the observed failure of cells lysostripped of 9.6 antigen to form E-rosettes. This last finding suggests cocapping of 9.6 antigen and the E receptor.