Differentiated care for youth in Zimbabwe: Outcomes across the HIV care cascade.

Youth living with HIV are at higher risk than adults of disengaging from HIV care. Differentiated models of care such as community delivery of antiretroviral therapy (ART) may improve treatment outcomes. We investigated outcomes across the HIV cascade among youth accessing HIV services in a community-based setting. This study was nested in a cluster-randomised controlled trial (CHIEDZA: Clinicaltrials.gov, Registration Number: NCT03719521) conducted in three provinces in Zimbabwe and aimed to investigate the impact of a youth-friendly community-based package of HIV services, integrated with sexual and reproductive health services for youth (16-24 years), on population-level HIV viral load (VL). HIV services included HIV testing, ART initiation and continuous care, VL testing, and adherence support. Overall 377 clients were newly diagnosed with HIV at CHIEDZA, and linkage to HIV care was confirmed for 265 (70.7%, 234 accessed care at CHIEDZA and 31 with other providers); of these 250 (94.3%) started ART. Among those starting ART at CHIEDZA who did not transfer out and had enough follow up time (>6 months), 38% (68/177) were lost-to-follow-up within six months. Viral suppression (HIV Viral Load <1000 copies/ml) among those who had a test at 6 months was 90% (96/107). In addition 1162 clients previously diagnosed with HIV accessed CHIEDZA; 714 (61.4%) had a VL test, of whom 565 (79.1%) were virally suppressed. This study shows that provision of differentiated services for youth in the community is feasible. Linkage to care and retention during the initial months of ART was the main challenge and needs concerted attention to achieve the ambitious 95-95-95 UNAIDS targets.

Exploring COVID-19 vaccine uptake among healthcare workers in Zimbabwe: A mixed methods study.

With COVID-19 no longer categorized as a public health emergency of international concern, vaccination strategies and priority groups for vaccination have evolved. Africa Centres for Diseases Prevention and Control proposed the '100-100-70%' strategy which aims to vaccinate all healthcare workers, all vulnerable groups, and 70% of the general population. Understanding whether healthcare workers were reached during previous vaccination campaigns and what can be done to address concerns, anxieties, and other influences on vaccine uptake, will be important to optimally plan how to achieve these ambitious targets. In this mixed-methods study, between June 2021 and July 2022 a quantitative survey was conducted with healthcare workers accessing a comprehensive health check in Zimbabwe to determine whether and, if so, when they had received a COVID-19 vaccine. Healthcare workers were categorized as those who had received the vaccine 'early' (before 30.06.2021) and those who had received it 'late' (after 30.06.2021). In addition, 17 in-depth interviews were conducted to understand perceptions and beliefs about COVID-19 vaccines. Of the 3,086 healthcare workers employed at 43 facilities who participated in the study, 2,986 (97%, 95% CI [92%-100%]) reported that they had received at least one vaccine dose. Geographical location, older age, higher educational attainment and having a chronic condition was associated with receiving the vaccine early. Qualitatively, (mis)information, infection risk perception, quasi-mandatory vaccination requirements, and legitimate concerns such as safety and efficacy influenced vaccine uptake. Meeting the proposed 100-100-70 target entails continued emphasis on strong communication while engaging meaningfully with healthcare workers' concerns. Mandatory vaccination may undermine trust and should not be a substitute for sustained engagement.

Exploring COVID-19 vaccine uptake among healthcare workers in Zimbabwe: A mixed methods study.

With COVID-19 no longer categorized as a public health emergency of international concern, vaccination strategies and priority groups for vaccination have evolved. Africa Centers for Diseases Prevention and Control proposed the '100-100-70%' strategy which aims to vaccinate all healthcare workers, all vulnerable groups, and 70% of the general population. Understanding whether healthcare workers were reached during previous vaccination campaigns and what can be done to address concerns, anxieties, and other influences on vaccine uptake, will be important to optimally plan how to achieve these ambitious targets. In this mixed-methods study, between June 2021 and July 2022 a quantitative survey was conducted with healthcare workers accessing a comprehensive health check in Zimbabwe to determine whether and, if so, when they had received a COVID-19 vaccine. Healthcare workers were categorized as those who had received the vaccine 'early' (before 30.06.2021) and those who had received it 'late' (after 30.06.2021). In addition, 17 in-depth interviews were conducted to understand perceptions and beliefs about COVID-19 vaccines. Of the 2905 healthcare workers employed at 37 facilities who participated in the study, 2818 (97%, 95% CI [92%-102%]) reported that they had received at least one vaccine dose. Geographical location, older age, higher educational attainment and having a chronic condition was associated with receiving the vaccine early. Qualitatively, (mis)information, infection risk perception, quasi-mandatory vaccination requirements, and legitimate concerns such as safety and efficacy influenced vaccine uptake. Meeting the proposed 100-100-70 target entails continued emphasis on strong communication while engaging meaningfully with healthcare workers' concerns. Mandatory vaccination may undermine trust and should not be a substitute for sustained engagement.

Delivery of index-linked HIV testing for children: learnings from a qualitative process evaluation of the B-GAP study in Zimbabwe.

BACKGROUND: Index-linked HIV testing for children, whereby HIV testing is offered to children of individuals living with HIV, has the potential to identify children living with undiagnosed HIV. The "Bridging the Gap in HIV Testing and Care for Children in Zimbabwe" (B-GAP) study implemented and evaluated the provision of index-linked HIV testing for children aged 2-18 years in Zimbabwe. We conducted a process evaluation to understand the considerations for programmatic delivery and scale-up of this strategy. METHODS: We used implementation documentation to explore experiences of the field teams and project manager who delivered the index-linked testing program, and to describe barriers and facilitators to index-linked testing from their perspectives. Qualitative data were drawn from weekly logs maintained by the field teams, monthly project meeting minutes, the project coordinator's incident reports and WhatsApp group chats between the study team and the coordinator. Data from each of the sources was analysed thematically and synthesised to inform the scale-up of this intervention. RESULTS: Five main themes were identified related to the implementation of the intervention: (1) there was reduced clinic attendance of potentially eligible indexes due to community-based differentiated HIV care delivery and collection of HIV treatment by proxy individuals; (2) some indexes reported that they did not live in the same household as their children, reflecting the high levels of community mobility; (3) there were also thought to be some instances of 'soft refusal'; (4) further, delivery of HIV testing was limited by difficulties faced by indexes in attending health facilities with their children for clinic-based testing, stigma around community-based testing, and the lack of familiarity of indexes with caregiver provided oral HIV testing; (5) and finally, test kit stockouts and inadequate staffing also constrained delivery of index-linked HIV testing. CONCLUSIONS: There was attrition along the index-linked HIV testing cascade of children. While challenges remain at all levels of implementation, programmatic adaptations of index-linked HIV testing approaches to suit patterns of clinic attendance and household structures may strengthen implementation of this strategy. Our findings highlight the need to tailor index-linked HIV testing to subpopulations and contexts to maximise its effectiveness.

Risk factors for contracting watery diarrhoea in Mzilikazi, Bulawayo City, Zimbabwe, 2020: a case control study.

Introduction: Mzilikazi clinic had an upsurge of diarrhoea cases with 41 cases from the 28th to the 30th of September 2020, against a threshold of 11. We therefore, investigated the risk factors associated with this outbreak to recommend prevention and control measures. Methods: we conducted a 1:1 unmatched case-control study. A case was any person who suffered from diarrhoea, and was resident in the clinic´s catchment since the 21st of September 2020. Demographic data, knowledge and practices related to diarrhoea were collected using a standard questionnaire for both cases and controls. Environmental assessment, water quality and stool testing was also done. We conducted univariate and multivariate analysis at 95% confidence interval, to determine factors independently associated with contracting diarrhoea. Results: the median age was 30 years (Q1=12, Q3=46) for cases and 30 years (Q1=22, Q3=48) for controls. The dominant gender was female for cases and male for controls. The independent risk factors were: drinking borehole water [adjusted Odds Ratio (aOR)=2.66; 95%CI=(1.41-5.00)], storing water in open container [aOR=2.76; 95%CI=(1.38-5.53)] and being under-five years old [aOR=5.73; 95%CI=(2.06-15.89)]. Boiling drinking water [aOR=0.39; 95%CI=(0.20-0.75)] was protective. Coliforms were detected from boreholes and stored water samples, and Shigella flexneri was isolated from 2 of the 13 stool specimens collected. Residents accessed water from decommissioned boreholes due to severe municipal water rationing. Conclusion: being under-five years old, drinking borehole water and storing water in open containers were independent risk factors. Health education on home water treatment, distribution of water storage containers, and Aquatabs was done.

Feasibility and Accuracy of HIV Testing of Children by Caregivers Using Oral Mucosal Transudate HIV Tests.

BACKGROUND: Children encounter multiple barriers in accessing facilities. HIV self-testing using oral mucosal transudate (OMT) tests has been shown to be effective in reaching hard-to-reach populations. We evaluated the feasibility and accuracy of caregivers conducting HIV testing using OMTs in children in Zimbabwe. METHODS: We offered OMTs to caregivers (>18 years) living with HIV to test children (2-18 years) living in their households. All caregivers were provided with manufacturer instructions. In Phase 1 (January-December 2018, 9 clinics), caregivers additionally received a demonstration by a provider using a test kit and video. In Phase 2 (January-May 2019, 3 clinics), caregivers did not receive a demonstration. We collected demographic data and assessed caregiver's ability to perform the test and interpret results. Caregiver performance was assessed by direct observation and scored using a predefined checklist. Factors associated with obtaining a full score were analyzed using logistic regression. RESULTS: Overall 400 caregivers (83.0% female, median age 38 years) who were observed tested 786 children (54.6% female, median age 8 years). For most tests, caregivers correctly collected oral fluid [87.1% without provider demonstrations (n = 629) and 96.8% with demonstrations (n = 157), P = 0.002]. The majority correctly used a timer (90.3% without demonstrations and 96.8% with demonstrations, P = 0.02). In multivariate logistic regression caregivers who obtained a full score for performance were more likely to have received a demonstration (odds ratio 4.14, 95% confidence interval: 2.01 to 8.50). CONCLUSIONS: Caregiver-provided testing using OMTs is a feasible and accurate HIV testing strategy for children. We recommend operational research to support implementation at scale.

Comparison of index-linked HIV testing for children and adolescents in health facility and community settings in Zimbabwe: findings from the interventional B-GAP study.

BACKGROUND: Index-linked HIV testing, whereby children of individuals with HIV are targeted for testing, increases HIV yield but relies on uptake. Community-based testing might address barriers to testing access. In the Bridging the Gap in HIV testing and care for children in Zimbabwe (B-GAP) study, we investigated the uptake and yield of index-linked testing in children and the uptake of community-based vs facility-based HIV testing in Zimbabwe. METHODS: B-GAP was an interventional study done in the city of Bulawayo and the province of Matabeleland South between Jan 29 and Dec 12, 2018. All HIV-positive attendees (index patients) at six urban and three rural primary health-care clinics were offered facility-based or community-based HIV testing for children (age 2-18 years) living in their households who had never been tested or had tested as HIV-negative more than 6 months ago. Community-based options involved testing in the home by either a trained lay worker with a blood-based rapid diagnostic test (used in facility-based testing), or by the child's caregiver with an oral HIV test. Among consenting individuals, the primary outcome was testing uptake in terms of the proportion of eligible children tested. Secondary outcomes were uptake of the different HIV testing methods, HIV yield (proportion of eligible children who tested positive), and HIV prevalence (proportion of HIV-positive children among those tested). Logistic regression adjusting for within-index clustering was used to investigate index patient and child characteristics associated with testing uptake, and the uptake of community-based versus facility-based testing. FINDINGS: Overall, 2870 index patients were linked with 6062 eligible children (3115 [51·4%] girls [sex unknown in seven], median age 8 years [IQR 5-13]). Testing was accepted by index patients for 5326 (87·9%) children, and 3638 were tested with a known test outcome, giving an overall testing uptake among 6062 eligible children of 60·0%. 39 children tested positive for HIV, giving an HIV prevalence among the 3638 children of 1·1% and an HIV yield among 6062 eligible children of 0·6%. Uptake was positively associated with female sex in the index patient (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] 1·56 [95% CI 1·38-1·77], p<0·0001) and child (aOR 1·10 [1·03-1·19], p=0·0080), and negatively associated with any financial cost of travel to a clinic (aOR 0·86 [0·83-0·88], p<0·0001), increased child age (6-9 years: aOR 0·99 (0·89-1·09); 10-15 years: aOR 0·91 [0·83-1·00]; and 16-18 years: aOR 0·75 [0·66-0·85]; p=0·0001 vs 2-5 years), and unknown HIV status of the mother (aOR 0·81 [0·68-0·98], p=0·027 vs HIV-positive status). Additionally, children had increased odds of being tested if community-based testing was chosen over facility-based testing at screening (1320 [73·9%] children tested of 1787 vs 2318 [65·5%] of 3539; aOR 1·49 [1·22-1·81], p=0·0001). INTERPRETATION: The HIV yield of index-linked testing was low compared with blanket testing approaches in similar settings. Index-linked HIV testing can improve testing uptake among children, although strategies that improve testing uptake in older children are needed. Community based testing by lay workers is a feasible strategy that can be used to improve uptake of HTS among children and adolescents. FUNDING: UK Medical Research Council, UK Department for International Development, Wellcome Trust.

Addressing the challenges and relational aspects of index-linked HIV testing for children and adolescents: insights from the B-GAP study in Zimbabwe.

INTRODUCTION: Index-linked HIV testing, targeted at sexual contacts or children of individuals with HIV, may improve yield and efficiency. The B-GAP study evaluated index-linked testing approaches in health facility and community-based settings. This paper reports on a qualitative study to understand factors that affect uptake of index-linked HIV testing for children and adolescents. METHODS: We conducted four focus group discussions (FGDs) with caregivers who had their children tested through B-GAP and one FGD with providers who offered index-linked HIV testing to indexes. We aimed to understand enabling and inhibiting factors in the decision-making process. Translated and transcribed transcripts were read for familiarisation. Following initial coding, analytical memos were written to identify emerging key themes across the data. RESULTS: Our findings showed there was inadequate emphasis on paediatric HIV in routine care which had a negative impact on subsequent uptake of testing for children. Once the decision to test had been made, access to facilities was sometimes challenging and alleviated by community-based testing. A key finding was that HIV testing is not a discrete event but a process that was influenced by relationships with other family members and children themselves. These relationships raised complex issues that could prevent or delay the testing process. CONCLUSION: There is a need to improve messaging on the importance of HIV testing for children and adolescents and to provide support to caregivers and their families in order to improve testing uptake. Addressing access barriers through the provision of community-based testing and implementing a family-centred approach can optimise index-linked testing.

Prevalence, risk factors and treatment outcomes of isoniazid resistant TB in Bulawayo city, Zimbabwe: A cohort study.

INTRODUCTION: The isoniazid-resistant TB poses a threat to TB control efforts. Zimbabwe, one of the high TB burden countries, has not explored the burden of isoniazid resistant TB. Hence among all bacteriologically-confirmed TB patients diagnosed in Bulawayo City during March 2017 and December 2018, we aimed to assess the proportion with isoniazid resistant TB and associated factors. Also, we aimed to describe the TB treatment outcomes. METHODOLOGY: A cohort study involving routinely collected data by the National TB Reference Laboratory (NTBRL) in Bulawayo City and National TB programme of Zimbabwe. The percentage with 95% confidence interval (CI) was used to express the proportion with isoniazid-resistant TB. The modified Poisson regression was used to assess the association of demographic and clinical characteristics with isoniazid mono-resistant TB. RESULTS: Of 2160 bacteriologically-confirmed TB patients, 1612 (74.6%) had their sputum received at the NTBRL and 743 (46.1%) had culture growth. Among those with culture growth, 34 (4.6%, 95% CI: 3.5-6.7) had isoniazid mono-resistant TB, 25 (3.3%, 95% CI: 2.2-4.9) had MDR-TB. Thus, 59 (7.9%, 95% CI: 6.1-10.1) had isoniazid-resistant TB. Children < 15 years had a higher prevalence of isoniazid mono-resistant TB (aPR= 3.93; 95% CI: 1.24-12.45). Among those with rifampicin sensitive TB, patients with isoniazid-sensitive TB had higher favourable treatment outcomes compared to those with isoniazid-resistant TB (86.3% versus 75.5%, p = 0.039). CONCLUSIONS: The prevalence of isoniazid-resistant TB was low compared to neighbouring countries with high burden of TB-HIV. However, Zimbabwe should consider reviewing treatment guidelines for isoniazid mono-resistant TB due to the observed poor treatment outcomes.

Isoniazid preventive therapy: Uptake, incidence of tuberculosis and survival among people living with HIV in Bulawayo, Zimbabwe.

SETTING: Four primary health care clinics providing tuberculosis (TB) and Human Immunodeficiency Virus care services in Bulawayo, Zimbabwe. OBJECTIVES: To assess isoniazid preventive therapy (IPT) initiation and completion, factors associated with IPT uptake and incidence of TB, and TB and antiretroviral treatment (ART) outcomes among people living with HIV (PLHIV). DESIGN: This was a cohort study using routine data in the records for PLHIV initiated on ART from October 2013 to March 2014 with 31 December 2017 as the end of the follow-up period. RESULTS: A total of 408 PLHIV were eligible for IPT, 214 (52%) were initiated on IPT and 201 (94%) completed IPT. No person in the IPT-initiated group developed Tuberculosis (TB). Six persons with TB were reported among the non-IPT-initiated group leading to an incidence of 9 cases/1,000 person-years of follow-up. About 70% of those who developed and were treated for TB had a successful TB treatment outcome. The survival on ART at four years of follow-up was 88% among the IPT-initiated PLHIV that was significantly higher than the 75% survival in the group not- initiated on IPT. CONCLUSION: The study revealed low IPT initiation among eligible PLHIV who, if started on IPT, completed the six month regimen. TB was reported only among the PLHIV not-initiated on IPT and the four year ART survival was higher in the IPT-initiated group than in the non-initiated group. These findings reinforce the need to strengthen IPT uptake among PLHIV in Bulawayo.

Evaluating the effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of health facility-based and community-based index-linked HIV testing strategies for children: protocol for the B-GAP study in Zimbabwe.

INTRODUCTION: The number of new paediatric infections per year has declined in sub-Saharan Africa due to prevention-of-mother-to-child HIV transmission programmes; many children and adolescents living with HIV remain undiagnosed. In this protocol paper, we describe the methodology for evaluating an index-linked HIV testing approach for children aged 2-18 years in health facility and community settings in Zimbabwe. METHODS AND ANALYSIS: Individuals attending for HIV care at selected primary healthcare clinics (PHCs) will be asked if they have any children aged 2-18 years in their households who have not been tested for HIV. Three options for HIV testing for these children will be offered: testing at the PHC; home-based testing performed by community workers; or an oral mucosal HIV test given to the caregiver to test the children at home. All eligible children will be followed-up to ascertain whether HIV testing occurred. For those who did not test, reasons will be determined, and for those who tested, the HIV test result will be recorded. The primary outcome will be uptake of HIV testing. The secondary outcomes will be preferred HIV testing method, HIV yield, prevalence and proportion of those testing positive linking to care and having an undetectable viral load at 12 months. HIV test results will be stratified by sex and age group, and factors associated with uptake of HIV testing and choice of HIV testing method will be investigated. ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION: Ethical approval for this study was granted by the Medical Research Council of Zimbabwe, the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine and the Institutional Review Board of the Biomedical Research and Training Institute. Study results will be presented at national policy meetings and national and international research conferences. Results will also be published in international peer-reviewed scientific journals and disseminated to study communities at the end of study.

Bacteriologically confirmed pulmonary tuberculosis patients: Loss to follow-up, death and delay before treatment initiation in Bulawayo, Zimbabwe from 2012-2016.

OBJECTIVE: To quantify and assess trends and risk factors for loss to follow-up (LTFU) and delays before treatment initiation among bacteriologically confirmed pulmonary tuberculosis (TB) patients (laboratory-diagnosed) in Bulawayo, 2012-16. DESIGN: Cohort study using secondary programme data. Presumptive TB patients' sputum samples were sent to the laboratory from the 19 primary health care clinics. Laboratory-diagnosed patients (microscopy or Xpert MTB/RIF) were tracked for treatment registration at the clinics. RESULTS: Of 2443 laboratory-diagnosed patients, the mean (standard deviation, SD) delay from sputum receipt at the laboratory to testing was 2.7(1.6) days and from testing to result dispatch was 8.8(5.8) days. A total of 508(20.8%) were LTFU which included 252(10.3%) deaths. While the number of laboratory-diagnosed patients reduced over years, there was a significant increase in pre-treatment LTFU and death. Independent predictors of pre-treatment LTFU were age above 65 years, male gender and HIV positive/unknown. In addition, delay (≥3 days) between sputum receipt and testing was significantly associated with pre-treatment death. Among registered patients (n=1935), the mean (SD) delay to initiate treatment was 29.1 (21.6) days which significantly declined over the years. Patients registered as new TB had significantly long treatment delay. CONCLUSIONS: Interventions to mitigate the risk factors for high loss to follow-up, deaths and delays before TB treatment are urgently required.

Factors Associated with Mortality among Patients on TB Treatment in the Southern Region of Zimbabwe, 2013.

Background. In 2013, the tuberculosis (TB) mortality rate was highest in southern Zimbabwe at 16%. We therefore sought to determine factors associated with mortality among registered TB patients in this region. Methodology. This was a retrospective record review of registered patients receiving anti-TB treatment in 2013. Results. Of 1,971 registered TB patients, 1,653 (84%) were new cases compared with 314 (16%) retreatment cases. There were 1,538 (78%) TB/human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) coinfected patients, of whom 1,399 (91%) were on antiretroviral therapy (ART) with median pre-ART CD4 count of 133 cells/uL (IQR, 46-282). Overall, 428 (22%) TB patients died. Factors associated with increased mortality included being ≥65 years old [adjusted relative risk (ARR) = 2.48 (95% CI 1.35-4.55)], a retreatment TB case [ARR = 1.34 (95% CI, 1.10-1.63)], and being HIV-positive [ARR = 1.87 (95% CI, 1.44-2.42)] whilst ART initiation was protective [ARR = 0.25 (95% CI, 0.22-0.29)]. Cumulative mortality rates were 10%, 14%, and 21% at one, two, and six months, respectively, after starting TB treatment. Conclusion. There was high mortality especially in the first two months of anti-TB treatment, with risk factors being recurrent TB and being HIV-infected, despite a high uptake of ART.