Temperature alters the predator-prey size relationships and size-selectivity of Southern Ocean fish.

A primary response of many marine ectotherms to warming is a reduction in body size, to lower the metabolic costs associated with higher temperatures. The impact of such changes on ecosystem dynamics and stability will depend on the resulting changes to community size-structure, but few studies have investigated how temperature affects the relative size of predators and their prey in natural systems. We utilise >3700 prey size measurements from ten Southern Ocean lanternfish species sampled across >10° of latitude to investigate how temperature influences predator-prey size relationships and size-selective feeding. As temperature increased, we show that predators became closer in size to their prey, which was primarily associated with a decline in predator size and an increase in the relative abundance of intermediate-sized prey. The potential implications of these changes include reduced top-down control of prey populations and a reduction in the diversity of predator-prey interactions. Both of these factors could reduce the stability of community dynamics and ecosystem resistance to perturbations under ocean warming.

Genome analysis of Phytophthora cactorum strains associated with crown- and leather-rot in strawberry.

Phytophthora cactorum has two distinct pathotypes that cause crown rot and leather rot in strawberry (Fragaria × ananassa). Strains of the crown rot pathotype can infect both the rhizome (crown) and fruit tissues, while strains of the leather rot pathotype can only infect the fruits of strawberry. The genome of a highly virulent crown rot strain, a low virulent crown rot strain, and three leather rot strains were sequenced using PacBio high fidelity (HiFi) long read sequencing. The reads were de novo assembled to 66.4-67.6 megabases genomes in 178-204 contigs, with N50 values ranging from 892 to 1,036 kilobases. The total number of predicted complete genes in the five P. cactorum genomes ranged from 17,286 to 17,398. Orthology analysis identified a core secretome of 8,238 genes. Comparative genomic analysis revealed differences in the composition of potential virulence effectors, such as putative RxLR and Crinklers, between the crown rot and the leather rot pathotypes. Insertions, deletions, and amino acid substitutions were detected in genes encoding putative elicitors such as beta elicitin and cellulose-binding domain proteins from the leather rot strains compared to the highly virulent crown rot strain, suggesting a potential mechanism for the crown rot strain to escape host recognition during compatible interaction with strawberry. The results presented here highlight several effectors that may facilitate the tissue-specific colonization of P. cactorum in strawberry.

Effect of Fibular Malrotation on Tibiotalar Joint Contact Mechanics in a Weber B Ankle Fracture Model.

BACKGROUND: In minimally displaced Weber B ankle fractures, the distal fibular fracture fragment can be externally rotated. This malrotation is difficult to detect on radiographs and, when left malreduced through nonoperative treatment, may contribute to altered joint mechanics, predisposing to posttraumatic osteoarthritis. This study evaluates the effects of fibular malrotation on tibiotalar joint contact mechanics. METHODS: Six cadaveric ankles were tested using a materials testing system (MTS) machine. A tibiotalar joint sensor recorded contact area and pressure. Samples were tested in the intact, neutrally rotated, and malrotated state. Each trial applied a 686N axial load and a 147N Achilles tendon load in neutral position, 15° dorsiflexion, and 15° plantarflexion. RESULTS: In the comparison of malrotated to intact ankles, peak contact pressure was found to be significantly greater at neutral flexion (intact 5.56 MPa ± 1.39, malrotated 7.21 MPa ± 1.07, P = .03), not significantly different in dorsiflexion, and significantly decreased in plantarflexion (intact 11.2 MPa ± 3.04, malrotated 9.01 MPa ± 1.84, P = .01). Significant differences in contact area were not found between conditions. CONCLUSION: The findings suggest that fibular malrotation contributes to significant alterations in tibiotalar joint contact pressures, which may contribute to the development of posttraumatic osteoarthritis. When malrotation of the fibula is suspected on plain radiographs, a computer tomography (CT) scan should be obtained to evaluate its extent and further consideration should be given to surgical treatment. LEVELS OF EVIDENCE: Level V: Bench testing.

Life in the freezer: protein metabolism in Antarctic fish.

Whole-animal, in vivo protein metabolism rates have been reported in temperate and tropical, but not Antarctic fish. Growth in Antarctic species is generally slower than lower latitude species. Protein metabolism data for Antarctic invertebrates show low rates of protein synthesis and unusually high rates of protein degradation. Additionally, in Antarctic fish, increasing evidence suggests a lower frequency of successful folding of nascent proteins and reduced protein stability. This study reports the first whole-animal protein metabolism data for an Antarctic fish. Groups of Antarctic, Harpagifer antarcticus, and temperate, Lipophrys pholis, fish were acclimatized to a range of overlapping water temperatures and food consumption, whole-animal growth and protein metabolism measured. The rates of protein synthesis and growth in Antarctic, but not temperate fish, were relatively insensitive to temperature and were significantly lower in H. antarcticus at 3°C than in L. pholis. Protein degradation was independent of temperature in H. antarcticus and not significantly different to L. pholis at 3°C, while protein synthesis retention efficiency was significantly higher in L. pholis than H. antarcticus at 3°C. These results suggest Antarctic fish degrade a significantly larger proportion of synthesized protein than temperate fish, with fundamental energetic implications for growth at low temperatures.

Commercial fishery disturbance of the global ocean biological carbon sink.

Plankton drive a major sink of carbon across the global oceans. Dead plankton, their faeces and the faeces of plankton feeders, form a huge rain of carbon sinking to the seabed and deep ocean, reducing atmospheric CO2 levels and thus helping to regulate the climate. Any change in plankton communities, ecosystems or habitats will perturb this carbon sink, potentially increasing atmospheric CO2 . Fishing is a major cause of ocean ecosystem disturbance affecting all trophic levels including plankton, but its potential impact on the carbon sink is unknown. As both fisheries and the carbon sink depend on plankton, there is spatial overlap of these fundamental ecosystem services. Here, we provide the first global maps of this spatial overlap. Using an upper quartile analysis, we show that 21% of the total upper ocean carbon sink (export) and 39% of fishing effort globally are concentrated in zones of intensive overlap, representing 9% of the ocean surface area. This overlap is particularly evident in the Northeast Atlantic suggesting this region should be prioritized in terms of research and conservation measures to preserve the high levels of sinking carbon. Small pelagic fish dominate catches here and globally, and their exploitation could reduce important faecal pellet carbon sinks and cause trophic cascades affecting plankton communities. There is an urgent need to recognize that, alongside climate change, fishing might be a critical influence on the ability of the ocean to sequester atmospheric CO2 . Improved understanding of this influence, and how it will change with the climate, will be important for realizing a sustainable balance of the twin needs for productive fisheries and strong carbon sinks.

Stepping stones towards Antarctica: Switch to southern spawning grounds explains an abrupt range shift in krill.

Poleward range shifts are a global-scale response to warming, but these vary greatly among taxa and are hard to predict for individual species, localized regions or over shorter (years to decadal) timescales. Moving poleward might be easier in the Arctic than in the Southern Ocean, where evidence for range shifts is sparse and contradictory. Here, we compiled a database of larval Antarctic krill, Euphausia superba and, together with an adult database, it showed how their range shift is out of step with the pace of warming. During a 70-year period of rapid warming (1920s-1990s), distribution centres of both larvae and adults in the SW Atlantic sector remained fixed, despite warming by 0.5-1.0°C and losing sea ice. This was followed by a hiatus in surface warming and ice loss, yet during this period the distributions of krill life stages shifted greatly, by ~1000 km, to the south-west. Understanding the mechanism of such step changes is essential, since they herald system reorganizations that are hard to predict with current modelling approaches. We propose that the abrupt shift was driven by climatic controls acting on localized recruitment hotspots, superimposed on thermal niche conservatism. During the warming hiatus, the Southern Annular Mode index continued to become increasingly positive and, likely through reduced feeding success for larvae, this led to a precipitous decline in recruitment from the main reproduction hotspot along the southern Scotia Arc. This cut replenishment to the northern portion of the krill stock, as evidenced by declining density and swarm frequency. Concomitantly, a new, southern reproduction area developed after the 1990s, reinforcing the range shift despite the lack of surface warming. New spawning hotspots may provide the stepping stones needed for range shifts into polar regions, so planning of climate-ready marine protected areas should include these key areas of future habitat.

High mercury levels in Antarctic toothfish Dissostichus mawsoni from the Southwest Pacific sector of the Southern Ocean.

Mercury is a bioaccumulating toxic pollutant which can reach humans through the consumption of contaminated food (e.g. marine fish). Although the Southern Ocean is often portrayed as a pristine ecosystem, its fishery products are not immune to mercury contamination. We analysed mercury concentration (organic and inorganic forms - T-Hg) in the muscle of Antarctic toothfish, Dissostichus mawsoni, a long-lived top predator which supports a highly profitable fishery. Our samples were collected in three fishing areas (one seamount and two on the continental slope) in the Southwest Pacific Sector of the Southern Ocean during the 2016/2017 fishing season. Mercury levels and the size range of fish varied between fishing areas, with the highest levels (0.68 ± 0.45 mg kg-1 wwt) occurring on the Amundsen Sea seamount where catches were dominated by larger, older fish. The most parsimonious model of mercury concentration included both age and habitat (seamount vs continental slope) as explanatory variables. Mean mercury levels for each fishing area were higher than those in all previous studies of D. mawsoni, with mean values for the Amundsen Sea seamount exceeding the 0.5 mg kg-1 food safety threshold for the first time. It might therefore be appropriate to add D. mawsoni to the list of taxa, such as swordfish and sharks, which are known to exceed this threshold. This apparent increase in mercury levels suggests a recent contamination event which affected the Southwest Pacific sector, including both the Amundsen and Dumont D'Urville seas.

Effect of Vocal Fold Implant Placement on Depth of Vibration and Vocal Output.

OBJECTIVE: Most type 1 thyroplasty implants and some common injectable materials are mechanically stiff. Placing them close to the supple vocal fold mucosa can potentially dampen vibration and adversely impact phonation, yet this effect has not been systematically investigated. This study aims to examine the effect of implant depth on vocal fold vibration and vocal output. STUDY DESIGN: Computational simulation. METHODS: Voice production was simulated with a fiber-gel finite element computational model that incorporates a three-layer vocal fold composition (superficial lamina propria, vocal ligament, thyroarytenoid muscle). Implants of various depths were simulated, with a "deeper" or more medial implant positioned closer to the vocal fold mucosa and replacing more muscle elements. Trajectories of surface and within-tissue nodal points during vibration were produced. Outcome measures were the trajectory radii, fundamental frequency (F0 ), sound pressure level (SPL), and smoothed cepstral peak prominence (CPPS) as a function of implant depth. RESULTS: Amplitude of vibration at the vocal fold medial surface was reduced by an implant depth of as little as 14% of the total transverse vocal fold depth. Increase in F0 and decrease in CPPS were noted beyond 30% to 40% implant depth, and SPL decreased beyond 40% to 60% implant depth. CONCLUSIONS: Commonly used implants can dampen vibration "from a distance," ie, even without being immediately adjacent to vocal fold mucosa. Since implants are typically placed at depths examined in this study, stiff implants likely have a negative vocal impact in a subset of patients. Softer materials may be preferable, especially in bilateral medialization procedures. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: N/A Laryngoscope, 130:2192-2198, 2020.

Habitat partitioning in Antarctic krill: Spawning hotspots and nursery areas.

Antarctic krill, Euphausia superba, have a circumpolar distribution but are concentrated within the south-west Atlantic sector, where they support a unique food web and a commercial fishery. Within this sector, our first goal was to produce quantitative distribution maps of all six ontogenetic life stages of krill (eggs, nauplii plus metanauplii, calyptopes, furcilia, juveniles, and adults), based on a compilation of all available post 1970s data. Using these maps, we then examined firstly whether "hotspots" of egg production and early stage nursery occurred, and secondly whether the available habitat was partitioned between the successive life stages during the austral summer and autumn, when krill densities can be high. To address these questions, we compiled larval krill density records and extracted data spanning 41 years (1976-2016) from the existing KRILLBASE-abundance and KRILLBASE-length-frequency databases. Although adult males and females of spawning age were widely distributed, the distribution of eggs, nauplii and metanauplii indicates that spawning is most intense over the shelf and shelf slope. This contrasts with the distributions of calyptope and furcilia larvae, which were concentrated further offshore, mainly in the Southern Scotia Sea. Juveniles, however, were strongly concentrated over shelves along the Scotia Arc. Simple environmental analyses based on water depth and mean water temperature suggest that krill associate with different habitats over the course of their life cycle. From the early to late part of the austral season, juvenile distribution moves from ocean to shelf, opposite in direction to that for adults. Such habitat partitioning may reduce intraspecific competition for food, which has been suggested to occur when densities are exceptionally high during years of strong recruitment. It also prevents any potential cannibalism by adults on younger stages. Understanding the location of krill spawning and juvenile development in relation to potentially overlapping fishing activities is needed to protect the health of the south-west Atlantic sector ecosystem.

Sensitivity analysis of muscle mechanics-based voice simulator to determine gender-specific speech characteristics.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the gender differences in voice simulation using a sensitivity analysis approach. A global, Monte Carlo-based approach was employed, and the relationships between biomechanical inputs (lung pressure and muscle activation levels) and acoustic outputs (fundamental frequency, f0, and sound pressure level, SPL) were investigated for male and female versions of a voice simulator model. The gender distinction in the model was based on an anatomical scaling of the laryngeal structures. Results showed strong relationships for f0 and SPL as functions of lung pressure, as well as for f0 as a function of cricothyroid and thyroarytenoid muscle activity, in agreement with previous literature. Also expected was a systematic shift in f0 range between the genders. It was found that the female model exhibited greater pitch strength (saliency) than the male model, which might equate to a perceptually more periodic or higher-quality voice for females. In addition, the female model required slightly higher lung pressures than the male model to achieve the same SPL, suggesting a possibly greater phonatory effort and predisposition for fatigue in the female voice. The methods and results of this study lay the groundwork for a complete mapping of simulator sound signal characteristics as a function of simulator input parameters and a better understanding of gender-specific voice production and vocal health.

Vocal fold contact patterns based on normal modes of vibration.

The fluid-structure interaction and energy transfer from respiratory airflow to self-sustained vocal fold oscillation continues to be a topic of interest in vocal fold research. Vocal fold vibration is driven by pressures on the vocal fold surface, which are determined by the shape of the glottis and the contact between vocal folds. Characterization of three-dimensional glottal shapes and contact patterns can lead to increased understanding of normal and abnormal physiology of the voice, as well as to development of improved vocal fold models, but a large inventory of shapes has not been directly studied previously. This study aimed to take an initial step toward characterizing vocal fold contact patterns systematically. Vocal fold motion and contact was modeled based on normal mode vibration, as it has been shown that vocal fold vibration can be almost entirely described by only the few lowest order vibrational modes. Symmetric and asymmetric combinations of the four lowest normal modes of vibration were superimposed on left and right vocal fold medial surfaces, for each of three prephonatory glottal configurations, according to a surface wave approach. Contact patterns were generated from the interaction of modal shapes at 16 normalized phases during the vibratory cycle. Eight major contact patterns were identified and characterized by the shape of the flow channel, with the following descriptors assigned: convergent, divergent, convergent-divergent, uniform, split, merged, island, and multichannel. Each of the contact patterns and its variation are described, and future work and applications are discussed.

Impacts of rising sea temperature on krill increase risks for predators in the Scotia Sea.

Climate change is a threat to marine ecosystems and the services they provide, and reducing fishing pressure is one option for mitigating the overall consequences for marine biota. We used a minimally realistic ecosystem model to examine how projected effects of ocean warming on the growth of Antarctic krill, Euphausia superba, might affect populations of krill and dependent predators (whales, penguins, seals, and fish) in the Scotia Sea. We also investigated the potential to mitigate depletion risk for predators by curtailing krill fishing at different points in the 21st century. The projected effects of ocean warming on krill biomass were strongest in the northern Scotia Sea, with a ≥40% decline in the mass of individual krill. Projections also suggest a 25% chance that krill biomass will fall below an established depletion threshold (75% of its unimpacted level), with consequent risks for some predator populations, especially penguins. Average penguin abundance declined by up to 30% of its unimpacted level, with up to a 50% chance of falling below the depletion threshold. Simulated krill fishing at currently permitted harvest rates further increased risks for depletion, and stopping fishing offset the increased risks associated with ocean warming in our model to some extent. These results varied by location and species group. Risk reductions at smaller spatial scales also differed from those at the regional level, which suggests that some predator populations may be more vulnerable than others to future changes in krill biomass. However, impacts on predators did not always map directly to those for krill. Our findings indicate the importance of identifying vulnerable marine populations and targeting protection measures at appropriate spatial scales, and the potential for spatially-structured management to avoid aggravating risks associated with rising ocean temperatures. This may help balance tradeoffs among marine ecosystem services in an uncertain future.

Characterization of Flow-resistant Tubes Used for Semi-occluded Vocal Tract Voice Training and Therapy.

OBJECTIVES: This study aimed to characterize the pressure-flow relationship of tubes used for semi-occluded vocal tract voice training/therapy, as well as to answer these major questions: (1) What is the relative importance of tube length to tube diameter? (2) What is the range of oral pressures achieved with tubes at phonation flow rates? (3) Does mouth configuration behind the tubes matter? METHODS: Plastic tubes of various diameters and lengths were mounted in line with an upstream pipe, and the pressure drop across each tube was measured at stepwise increments in flow rate. Basic flow theory and modified flow theory equations were used to describe the pressure-flow relationship of the tubes based on diameter and length. Additionally, the upstream pipe diameter was varied to explore how mouth shape affects tube resistance. RESULTS: The modified equation provided an excellent prediction of the pressure-flow relationship across all tube sizes (6% error compared with the experimental data). Variation in upstream pipe diameter yielded up to 10% deviation in pressure for tube sizes typically used in voice training/therapy. CONCLUSIONS: Using the presented equations, we can characterize resistance for any tube based on diameter, length, and flow rate. With regard to the original questions, we found that (1) For commonly used tubes, diameter is the critical variable for governing flow resistance; (2) For phonation flow rates, a range of tube dimensions produced pressures between 0 and 7.0 kPa; and (3) The mouth pressure behind the lips will vary slightly with different mouth shapes, but this effect can be considered relatively insignificant.

Digestion by pepsin releases biologically active chromopeptides from C-phycocyanin, a blue-colored biliprotein of microalga Spirulina.

C-phycocyanin, the major protein of cyanobacteria Spirulina, possesses significant antioxidant, anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory effects, ascribed to covalently attached linear tetrapyrrole chromophore phycocyanobilin. There are no literature data about structure and biological activities of released peptides with bound chromophore in C-phycocyanin digest. This study aims to identify chromopeptides obtained after pepsin digestion of C-phycocyanin and to examine their bioactivities. C-phycocyanin is rapidly digested by pepsin in simulated gastric fluid. The structure of released chromopeptides was analyzed by high resolution tandem mass spectrometry and peptides varying in size from 2 to 13 amino acid residues were identified in both subunits of C-phycocyanin. Following separation by HPLC, chromopeptides were analyzed for potential bioactivities. It was shown that all five chromopeptide fractions have significant antioxidant and metal-chelating activities and show cytotoxic effect on human cervical adenocarcinoma and epithelial colonic cancer cell lines. In addition, chromopeptides protect human erythrocytes from free radical-induced hemolysis in antioxidative capacity-dependant manner. There was a positive correlation between antioxidative potency and other biological activities of chromopeptides. Digestion by pepsin releases biologically active chromopeptides from C-phycocyanin whose activity is mostly related to the antioxidative potency provided by chromophore.

On measuring the bending strength of septate grass stems.

UNLABELLED: • PREMISE OF THE STUDY: Reliable testing methodologies are a fundamental tenet of scientific research. However, very little information is found in the literature explaining how to accurately measure the structural bending strength of plant stems. It was hypothesized that the most commonly employed loading configuration used in bending experiments (placement of loading anvil at an internodal region of the stem or stalk) may significantly alter test results and introduce errors in bending strength measurements of plant stems.• METHODS: Four types of mechanical tests were performed on bamboo (Phyllostachys aurea), giant reed (Arundo donax), and maize (Zea mays) to investigate how different loading configurations employed during three-point bending experiments affect test results of septate grass stems and to develop a testing protocol that provides reliable measures of stalk bending strength.• RESULTS: RESULTS confirmed the hypothesis that internodal-loaded three-point bending test can produce erroneous bending strength measurements. This testing methodology causes plant stems to break prematurely and produces failure types and patterns incongruent with stalks that broke in their natural (in situ) environment. In contrast, a modified test configuration produces natural failure patterns and more accurate measurements of bending strength.• CONCLUSION: Reliable measurements of stalk bending strength can be obtained by maximizing the span length of bending tests and placing the loading anvil at stronger and denser nodal tissues. These results are relevant to ecological and evolutionary plant biomechanics studies as well as agronomic breeding studies focused on measuring plant phenotypes such as stalk lodging strength, or on improving bending strength of septate plant stems.

Benchmarks for time-domain simulation of sound propagation in soft-walled airways: steady configurations.

Time-domain computer simulation of sound production in airways is a widely used tool, both for research and synthetic speech production technology. Speed of computation is generally the rationale for one-dimensional approaches to sound propagation and radiation. Transmission line and wave-reflection (scattering) algorithms are used to produce formant frequencies and bandwidths for arbitrarily shaped airways. Some benchmark graphs and tables are provided for formant frequencies and bandwidth calculations based on specific mathematical terms in the one-dimensional Navier-Stokes equation. Some rules are provided here for temporal and spatial discretization in terms of desired accuracy and stability of the solution. Kinetic losses, which have been difficult to quantify in frequency-domain simulations, are quantified here on the basis of the measurements of Scherer, Torkaman, Kucinschi, and Afjeh [(2010). J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 128(2), 828-838].

A viscoelastic laryngeal muscle model with active components.

Accurate definitions of both passive and active tissue characteristics are important to laryngeal muscle modeling. This report tested the efficacy of a muscle model which added active stress components to an accurate definition of passive properties. Using the previously developed three-network Ogden model to simulate passive stress, a Hill-based contractile element stress equation was utilized for active stress calculations. Model input parameters were selected based on literature data for the canine cricothyroid muscle, and simulations were performed in order to compare the model behavior to published results for the same muscle. The model results showed good agreement with muscle behavior, including appropriate tetanus response and contraction time for isometric conditions, as well as accurate stress predictions in response to dynamic strain with activation.

Sardine cycles, krill declines, and locust plagues: revisiting 'wasp-waist' food webs.

'Wasp-waist' systems are dominated by a mid trophic-level species that is thought to exert top-down control on its food and bottom-up control on its predators. Sardines, anchovy, and Antarctic krill are suggested examples, and here we use locusts to explore whether the wasp-waist concept also applies on land. These examples also display the traits of mobile aggregations and dietary diversity, which help to reduce the foraging footprint from their large, localised biomasses. This suggests that top-down control on their food operates at local aggregation scales and not at wider scales suggested by the original definition of wasp-waist. With this modification, the wasp-waist framework can cross-fertilise marine and terrestrial approaches, revealing how seemingly disparate but economically important systems operate.

[New oral anticoagulants - influence on coagulation tests]. / Neue orale Antikoagulanzien - Einfluss auf Gerinnungstests.

The new oral anticoagulants (NOACs) represent alternative antithrombotic agents for prophylaxis and therapy of thromboembolic diseases. They act either by inhibition of the clotting factor Xa or IIa (thrombin). As a consequence, they influence several coagulation assays (for example prothrombin time, activated partial thromboplastin time). Because of the short half-life of these new agents, these changes show great variations in the course of 24 hours. Furthermore, there are significant differences of laboratory results depending on the used reagents. We explain the influence of apixaban, rivaroxaban (factor Xa inhibitors) and dabigatran (thrombin inhibitor) on the most commonly used coagulation assays. Besides we show that this influence depends on the way of action of the drug as well as on the principle of the coagulation assay. Being aware of this relationships helps to interpret the results of coagulation assays under influence of NOACs correctly.

Ecosystem services of the Southern Ocean: trade-offs in decision-making.

Ecosystem services are the benefits that mankind obtains from natural ecosystems. Here we identify the key services provided by the Southern Ocean. These include provisioning of fishery products, nutrient cycling, climate regulation and the maintenance of biodiversity, with associated cultural and aesthetic benefits. Potential catch limits for Antarctic krill (Euphausia superba Dana) alone are equivalent to 11% of current global marine fisheries landings. We also examine the extent to which decision-making within the Antarctic Treaty System (ATS) considers trade-offs between ecosystem services, using the management of the Antarctic krill fishery as a case study. Management of this fishery considers a three-way trade-off between fisheries performance, the status of the krill stock and that of predator populations. However, there is a paucity of information on how well these components represent other ecosystem services that might be degraded as a result of fishing. There is also a lack of information on how beneficiaries value these ecosystem services. A formal ecosystem assessment would help to address these knowledge gaps. It could also help to harmonize decision-making across the ATS and promote global recognition of Southern Ocean ecosystem services by providing a standard inventory of the relevant ecosystem services and their value to beneficiaries.