Prostaglandin D2 modulates calcium signals induced by prostaglandin E2 in neurons of rat dorsal root ganglia.

Fever in response to a localized subcutaneous stimulation with a low dose of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) can be attenuated by co-administration of a local anesthetic or the non-selective cyclooxygenase (COX) inhibitor diclofenac at doses, which do not exert systemic effects when injected at sites remote from the area of inflammatory stimulation. These results suggest a participation of neuronal afferent signals mediated by COX-products in the manifestation of fever under these conditions. We therefore, measured intracellular Ca(2+)-concentrations in cultured neurons from rat dorsal root ganglia (DRG) stimulated with the pyrogenic mediator prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), the anti-inflammatory and antipyretic mediator PGD2, mixtures of both PGs, and menthol using the fura-2 ratio imaging technique. Neurons could be grouped according to their size with diameters of about 15µm (small), 35µm (medium sized), or 55µm (large). 96 out of 264 neurons responded to PGE2 with pronounced Ca(2+)-signals, 53 of them being also responsive to menthol, indicative of their function as cold-sensors. 80% of these neurons belonged to the medium sized group. In a next experiment, we tested whether Ca(2+)-signals of PGE2 responsive neurons were modulated by PGD2. In 60% of all neurons investigated (n=57), the strength of the PGE2-induced Ca(2+)-signals was reduced by co-administration of PGD2. This effect was also observed in those neurons that were responsive to PGE2 and menthol (n=23; p<0.001). This observation indicates antagonistic effects of PGE2 and PGD2 on a neuronal pathway that involves cold sensors and is activated during a localized subcutaneous inflammation. This finding might provide an explanation for the reported antipyretic and anti-inflammatory capacities of PGD2.

Involvement of brain cytokines in zymosan-induced febrile response.

This study compared the involvement of interleukin-1ß (IL-1ß), IL-6, and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) within the central nervous system (CNS) in the febrile response induced by zymosan (zym) and lipopolysaccharide (LPS). In addition, we investigated whether zym could activate important regions related to fever; namely, the vascular organ of the laminae terminalis (OVLT) and the median preoptic nucleus (MnPO). Intraperitoneal injection of zym (1, 3, and 10 mg/kg) induced a dose-related increase in core temperature. Zym (3 mg/kg) also reduced tail skin temperature, suggesting the activation of heat conservation mechanisms, as expected, during fever. LPS increased plasma levels of TNF-α measured at 1 h, IL-1ß measured at 2 h, and IL-6 measured at 3 h after injection. Zym increased circulating levels of IL-6 but not those of TNF-α or IL-1ß at the same time points. In addition, an intracerebroventricular injection of antibodies against TNF-α (2.5 µg) and IL-6 (10 µg) or the IL-1 receptor antagonist (160 ng) reduced the febrile response induced by zym and LPS. Zym (100 µg/ml) also increased intracellular calcium concentration in the OVLT and MnPO from rat primary neuroglial cultures and increased release of TNF-α and IL-6 into the supernatants of these cultures. Together, these results suggest that TNF-α, IL-1ß, and IL-6 within the CNS participate in the febrile response induced by zym. However, the time course of release of these cytokines may be different from that of LPS. In addition, zym can directly activate the brain areas related to fever.