BioID reveals an ATG9A interaction with ATG13-ATG101 in the degradation of p62/SQSTM1-ubiquitin clusters.

ATG9A, the only multi-pass transmembrane protein among core ATG proteins, is an essential regulator of autophagy, yet its regulatory mechanisms and network of interactions are poorly understood. Through quantitative BioID proteomics, we identify a network of ATG9A interactions that includes members of the ULK1 complex and regulators of membrane fusion and vesicle trafficking, including the TRAPP, EARP, GARP, exocyst, AP-1, and AP-4 complexes. These interactions mark pathways of ATG9A trafficking through ER, Golgi, and endosomal systems. In exploring these data, we find that ATG9A interacts with components of the ULK1 complex, particularly ATG13 and ATG101. Using knockout/reconstitution and split-mVenus approaches to capture the ATG13-ATG101 dimer, we find that ATG9A interacts with ATG13-ATG101 independently of ULK1. Deletion of ATG13 or ATG101 causes a shift in ATG9A distribution, resulting in an aberrant accumulation of ATG9A at stalled clusters of p62/SQSTM1 and ubiquitin, which can be rescued by an ULK1 binding-deficient mutant of ATG13. Together, these data reveal ATG9A interactions in vesicle-trafficking and autophagy pathways, including a role for an ULK1-independent ATG13 complex in regulating ATG9A.

Antipyretic therapy: clinical pharmacology.

Fever depends on a complex physiologic response to infectious agents and other conditions. To alleviate fever, many medicinal agents have been developed over a century of trying to improve upon aspirin, which was determined to work by inhibiting prostaglandin synthesis. We present the process of fever induction through prostaglandin synthesis and discuss the development of pharmaceuticals that target enzymes and receptors involved in prostaglandin-mediated signal transduction, including prostaglandin H2 synthase (also known as cyclooxygenase), phospholipase A2, microsomal prostaglandin E2 synthase-1, EP receptors, and transient potential cation channel subfamily V member 1. Clinical use of established antipyretics will be discussed as well as medicinal agents under clinical trials and future research.

Expression of cyclooxygenase isoforms in the baculovirus expression system.

Prostaglandin synthase-1 and 2, also known as cyclooxygenase-1 and 2 (COX) catalyze the rate limiting step in the conversion of arachidonic acid to prostaglandins and other potent lipid mediators. As such, COX enzymes represent important pharmacological targets in the treatment of pain, inflammation, and fever. However, due to the typically low expression level of COX enzymes in most primary tissues, large amounts of highly purified enzyme for in depth study is difficult to obtain. Overexpression of COX in the baculovirus expression system represents a quick and efficient way to overcome this problem and obtain large amounts of catalytically active enzyme. Here, we present a step-by-step approach for COX expression in the baculovirus system.

The N-terminus of COX-1 and its effect on cyclooxygenase-1 catalytic activity.

Cyclooxygenases are encoded by COX-1 and COX-2. They share over sixty percent sequence identity in human and are similar to each other in their crystallographic structures. One major difference in the primary structure of these two isozymes is the presence of eight amino acids in the amino-terminal region of COX-1 that are not present in COX-2. The function of this amino acid sequence is unknown. In this study, a human COX-1 mutant (Delta7aa) with this sequence removed was studied in parallel with COX-1. Signal peptide cleavage, N-linked glycosylation, protein expression, distribution and dimerization were not affected by the mutation. The mutant was enzymatically active and showed the same sensitivity toward aspirin. The KM for the enzyme remained the same as COX-1. However, the V(max) of the COX-1 mutant decreased by 3.3-fold. We conclude that the COX-1 specific amino-terminal sequence has a subtle but detectable effect on COX-1 catalysis.

Answering the burning question of how transient receptor potential vanilloid-1 channel antagonists cause unwanted hyperthermia.

The treatment of chronic pain with new therapies that lack the side effects of existing analgesics is one of medicine's great unmet needs. Toward this goal, antagonists of the transient receptor potential vanilloid-1 (TRPV1) channel have shown some promise. However, the development of these compounds has been hindered by an unpleasant on-target hyperthermic side effect. With compelling evidence, the accompanying critical review by Romanovsky et al. (p. 228) regarding TRPV1 takes a position on the sites of action of TRPV1 agonists and antagonists on the thermoregulatory system that controls this side effect. From this comes insight on potential ways to overcome the unwanted hyperthermic action of TRPV1 antagonists.

Cyclooxygenase-1 or -2--which one mediates lipopolysaccharide-induced hypothermia?

Systemic inflammation is associated with either fever or hypothermia. Fever, a response to mild systemic inflammation, is mediated by cyclooxygenase (COX)-2 and not by COX-1. However, it is still disputed whether COX-2, COX-1, neither, or both mediate(s) responses to severe systemic inflammation, and, in particular, the hypothermic response. We compared the effects of SC-236 (COX-2 inhibitor) and SC-560 (COX-1 inhibitor) on the deep body temperature (T(b)) of rats injected with a lower (10 microg/kg i.v.) or higher (1,000 microg/kg i.v.) dose of LPS at different ambient temperatures (T(a)s). At a neutral T(a) (30 degrees C), the rats responded to LPS with a polyphasic fever (lower dose) or a brief hypothermia followed by fever (higher dose). SC-236 (2.5 mg/kg i.v.) blocked the fever induced by either LPS dose, whereas SC-560 (5 mg/kg i.v.) altered neither the febrile response to the lower LPS dose nor the fever component of the response to the higher dose. However, SC-560 blocked the initial hypothermia caused by the higher LPS dose. At a subneutral T(a) (22 degrees C), the rats responded to LPS with early (70-90 min, nadir) dose-dependent hypothermia. The hypothermic response to either dose was enhanced by SC-236 but blocked by SC-560. The hypothermic response to the higher LPS dose was associated with a fall in arterial blood pressure. This hypotensive response was attenuated by either SC-236 or SC-560. At the onset of LPS-induced hypothermia and hypotension, the functional activity of the COX-1 pathway (COX-1-mediated PGE(2) synthesis ex vivo) increased in the spleen but not liver, lung, kidney, or brain. The expression of splenic COX-1 was unaffected by LPS. We conclude that COX-1, but not COX-2, mediates LPS hypothermia, and that both COX isoforms are required for LPS hypotension.

Trifunctional inhibition of COX-2 by extracts of Lonicera japonica: direct inhibition, transcriptional and post-transcriptional down regulation.

The anti-inflammatory properties of aqueous extracts from Lonicera japonica (LJ) flower, an anti-inflammatory treatment in traditional Chinese medicine, were tested by radioimmunoassay of cyclooxygenase isoenzyme-generated prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) synthesis as well as by Western and Northern blot analysis of COX-2 protein and mRNA expression, respectively. Boiled LJ aqueous extracts directly inhibited both COX-1 and COX-2 activity, while non-boiled extracts stimulated COX-1. Boiled LJ extracts also inhibited expression of IL-1beta-induced COX-2 protein expression and suppressed its mRNA induction by IL-1beta in A549 cells. Suppression of COX-2 mRNA induction required a significantly higher dose of aqueous extract than did suppression of protein expression, indicating that compounds in the extract act translationally or post-translationally at lower doses and transcriptionally or post-transcriptionally at higher doses. Direct inhibition of COX isoenzymes as well as down-regulation of COX-2 mRNA and protein may represent the mechanism by which this ancient herbal treatment decreases inflammation.

Cyclooxygenase variants: the role of alternative splicing.

Alternative splicing of cellular pre-mRNA is responsible for production of multiple mRNAs from individual genes. Splice variants are expressed in cell- and tissue-specific contexts that are important in development and physiology. Alternative splicing can serve as a regulatory mechanism whereby developmental programming and environmental factors/stimuli affect biological activities of translated proteins. Cyclooxygenase (COX)-1 and -2 genes produce splice variants whose biological expression, relevance, and activities have been of significant interest. COX variants are produced by a variety of splicing mechanisms. Four structural domains of the COX proteins (the amino terminal signal peptide, membrane-binding domain, dimerization domain, and catalytic domain) are defined by specific COX exons. COX splice variants may, therefore, result in potential changes in protein subcellular localization, dimerization, and activity. COX variant proteins may act in roles which diverge from those of COX-1 and -2.

The cyclooxygenases.

Cyclooxygenases (COXs) catalyze the rate-limiting step in the production of prostaglandins, bioactive compounds involved in processes such as fever and sensitivity to pain, and are the target of aspirin-like drugs. COX genes have been cloned from coral, tunicates and vertebrates, and in all the phyla where they are found, there are two genes encoding two COX isoenzymes; it is unclear whether these genes arose from an early single duplication event or from multiple independent duplications in evolution. The intron-exon arrangement of COX genes is completely conserved in vertebrates and mostly conserved in all species. Exon boundaries largely define the four functional domains of the encoded protein: the amino-terminal hydrophobic signal peptide, the dimerization domain, the membrane-binding domain, and the catalytic domain. The catalytic domain of each enzyme contains distinct peroxidase and cyclooxygenase active sites; COXs are classified as members of the myeloperoxidase family. All COXs are homodimers and monotopic membrane proteins (inserted into only one leaflet of the membrane), and they appear to be targeted to the lumenal membrane of the endoplasmic reticulum, where they are N-glycosylated. In mammals, the two COX genes encode a constitutive isoenzyme (COX-1) and an inducible isoenzyme (COX-2); both are of significant pharmacological importance.

Cyclooxygenase-3 gene expression in Alzheimer hippocampus and in stressed human neural cells.

The cyclooxygenase (COX) superfamily of prostaglandin synthase genes encode a constitutively expressed COX-1, an inducible, highly regulated COX-2, and a COX-3 isoform whose RNA is derived through the retention of a highly structured, G + C-rich intron 1 of the COX-1 gene. As generators of oxygen radicals, lipid mediators, and the pharmacological targets of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), COX enzymes potentiate inflammatory neuropathology in Alzheimer's disease (AD) brain. Because COX-2 is elevated in AD and COX-3 is enriched in the mammalian CNS, these studies were undertaken to examine the expression of COX-3 in AD and in [IL-1beta + Abeta42]-triggered human neural (HN) cells in primary culture. The results indicate that while COX-2 remains a major player in propagating inflammmation in AD and in stressed HN cells, COX-3 may play ancillary roles in membrane-based COX signaling or when basal levels of COX-1 or COX-2 expression persist.

Cyclooxygenase isozymes: the biology of prostaglandin synthesis and inhibition.

Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) represent one of the most highly utilized classes of pharmaceutical agents in medicine. All NSAIDs act through inhibiting prostaglandin synthesis, a catalytic activity possessed by two distinct cyclooxygenase (COX) isozymes encoded by separate genes. The discovery of COX-2 launched a new era in NSAID pharmacology, resulting in the synthesis, marketing, and widespread use of COX-2 selective drugs. These pharmaceutical agents have quickly become established as important therapeutic medications with potentially fewer side effects than traditional NSAIDs. Additionally, characterization of the two COX isozymes is allowing the discrimination of the roles each play in physiological processes such as homeostatic maintenance of the gastrointestinal tract, renal function, blood clotting, embryonic implantation, parturition, pain, and fever. Of particular importance has been the investigation of COX-1 and -2 isozymic functions in cancer, dysregulation of inflammation, and Alzheimer's disease. More recently, additional heterogeneity in COX-related proteins has been described, with the finding of variants of COX-1 and COX-2 enzymes. These variants may function in tissue-specific physiological and pathophysiological processes and may represent important new targets for drug therapy.

Determination of expression of cyclooxygenase-1 and -2 isozymes in canine tissues and their differential sensitivity to nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate cyclooxygenase isozyme distribution in tissues from dogs and determine the differential sensitivity of canine cyclooxygenase (COX)-1 and -2 isozymes to nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). SAMPLE POPULATION: Canine tissue samples (stomach, duodenum, ileum, jejunum, colon, spleen, cerebral cortex, lung, ovary, kidney, and liver) were obtained from 2 dogs for northern and western blot analyses, and blood for whole blood COX assays was obtained from 15 dogs. PROCEDURE: 11 NSAIDs were evaluated to determine their COX-2 selectivity in whole blood assays. The concentrations of the drug needed to inhibit 50% of enzyme activity (IC50) were then calculated for comparison. Expression and tissue distribution of COX isozymes were determined by northern and western blot analysis. RESULTS: Aspirin, diclofenac, indomethacin, ketoprofen, meclofenamic acid, and piroxicam had little selectivity toward COX isozymes, whereas NS398, carprofen, tolfenamic acid, nimesulide, and etodolac had more than 5 times greater preference for inhibiting COX-2 than COX-1. All canine tissues examined, including those from the gastrointestinal tract, coexpressed COX-1 and -2 mRNA, although protein expression was observed only for COX-1. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Canine COX-2 was selectively inhibited by etodolac, nimesulide, and NS398; tolfenamic acid and carprofen also appeared to be preferential COX-2 inhibitors in dogs. The roles of COX-1 as a constitutive housekeeping enzyme and COX-2 as a proinflammatory inducible enzyme (as determined in humans) appear to apply to dogs; therefore, COX-2-selective inhibitors should prove useful in reducing the adverse effects associated with nonselective NSAIDs.

Variants of cyclooxygenase-1 and their roles in medicine.

Acetaminophen (paracetamol) and other analgesic/antipyretic drugs such as dipyrone have been postulated to act centrally through inhibition of cyclooxygenases (COXs). COX activity in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated mammalian leukocytes, microglial cells, and platelets is inhibited by these drugs at physiological concentrations. Yet purified COX enzymes are poorly inhibited by acetaminophen, particularly under conditions of high oxidant tone and elevated substrate levels. This suggests the presence of cell-specific differences that govern COX inhibition by these drugs. COX-3, a variant of COX-1, has been found in canine brain and is inhibited by acetaminophen and dipyrone at physiological concentrations. Additionally, other new COX-1-derived proteins called PCOX have been identified that do not make prostaglandins but apparently bind heme and may have other enzymatic properties. Antibodies specific for these variants detect analogous proteins in human tissues. Expression of COX variants is postulated to be an integral part of the mechanism of action of analgesic/antipyretic drugs.

COX-3, a cyclooxygenase-1 variant inhibited by acetaminophen and other analgesic/antipyretic drugs: cloning, structure, and expression.

Two cyclooxygenase isozymes, COX-1 and -2, are known to catalyze the rate-limiting step of prostaglandin synthesis and are the targets of nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs. Here we describe a third distinct COX isozyme, COX-3, as well as two smaller COX-1-derived proteins (partial COX-1 or PCOX-1 proteins). COX-3 and one of the PCOX-1 proteins (PCOX-1a) are made from the COX-1 gene but retain intron 1 in their mRNAs. PCOX-1 proteins additionally contain an in-frame deletion of exons 5-8 of the COX-1 mRNA. COX-3 and PCOX mRNAs are expressed in canine cerebral cortex and in lesser amounts in other tissues analyzed. In human, COX-3 mRNA is expressed as an approximately 5.2-kb transcript and is most abundant in cerebral cortex and heart. Intron 1 is conserved in length and in sequence in mammalian COX-1 genes. This intron contains an ORF that introduces an insertion of 30-34 aa, depending on the mammalian species, into the hydrophobic signal peptide that directs COX-1 into the lumen of the endoplasmic reticulum and nuclear envelope. COX-3 and PCOX-1a are expressed efficiently in insect cells as membrane-bound proteins. The signal peptide is not cleaved from either protein and both proteins are glycosylated. COX-3, but not PCOX-1a, possesses glycosylation-dependent cyclooxygenase activity. Comparison of canine COX-3 activity with murine COX-1 and -2 demonstrates that this enzyme is selectively inhibited by analgesic/antipyretic drugs such as acetaminophen, phenacetin, antipyrine, and dipyrone, and is potently inhibited by some nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs. Thus, inhibition of COX-3 could represent a primary central mechanism by which these drugs decrease pain and possibly fever.