The structural mechanism of dimeric DONSON in replicative helicase activation.

The MCM motor of the replicative helicase is loaded onto origin DNA as an inactive double hexamer before replication initiation. Recruitment of activators GINS and Cdc45 upon S-phase transition promotes the assembly of two active CMG helicases. Although work with yeast established the mechanism for origin activation, how CMG is formed in higher eukaryotes is poorly understood. Metazoan Downstream neighbor of Son (DONSON) has recently been shown to deliver GINS to MCM during CMG assembly. What impact this has on the MCM double hexamer is unknown. Here, we used cryoelectron microscopy (cryo-EM) on proteins isolated from replicating Xenopus egg extracts to identify a double CMG complex bridged by a DONSON dimer. We find that tethering elements mediating complex formation are essential for replication. DONSON reconfigures the MCM motors in the double CMG, and primordial dwarfism patients' mutations disrupting DONSON dimerization affect GINS and MCM engagement in human cells and DNA synthesis in Xenopus egg extracts.

DONSON facilitates Cdc45 and GINS chromatin association and is essential for DNA replication initiation.

Faithful cell division is the basis for the propagation of life and DNA replication must be precisely regulated. DNA replication stress is a prominent endogenous source of genome instability that not only leads to ageing, but also neuropathology and cancer development in humans. Specifically, the issues of how vertebrate cells select and activate origins of replication are of importance as, for example, insufficient origin firing leads to genomic instability and mutations in replication initiation factors lead to the rare human disease Meier-Gorlin syndrome. The mechanism of origin activation has been well characterised and reconstituted in yeast, however, an equal understanding of this process in higher eukaryotes is lacking. The firing of replication origins is driven by S-phase kinases (CDKs and DDK) and results in the activation of the replicative helicase and generation of two bi-directional replication forks. Our data, generated from cell-free Xenopus laevis egg extracts, show that DONSON is required for assembly of the active replicative helicase (CMG complex) at origins during replication initiation. DONSON has previously been shown to be essential during DNA replication, both in human cells and in Drosophila, but the mechanism of DONSON's action was unknown. Here we show that DONSON's presence is essential for replication initiation as it is required for Cdc45 and GINS association with Mcm2-7 complexes and helicase activation. To fulfil this role, DONSON interacts with the initiation factor, TopBP1, in a CDK-dependent manner. Following its initiation role, DONSON also forms a part of the replisome during the elongation stage of DNA replication. Mutations in DONSON have recently been shown to lead to the Meier-Gorlin syndrome; this novel replication initiation role of DONSON therefore provides the explanation for the phenotypes caused by DONSON mutations in patients.

The p97 segregase cofactor Ubxn7 facilitates replisome disassembly during S-phase.

Complex cellular processes are driven by the regulated assembly and disassembly of large multiprotein complexes. While we are beginning to understand the molecular mechanism for assembly of the eukaryotic DNA replication machinery (replisome), we still know relatively little about the regulation of its disassembly at replication termination. Recently, the first elements of this process have emerged, revealing that the replicative helicase, at the heart of the replisome, is polyubiquitylated prior to unloading and that this unloading requires p97 segregase activity. Two different E3 ubiquitin ligases have now been shown to ubiquitylate the helicase under different conditions: Cul2Lrr1 and TRAIP. Here, using Xenopus laevis egg extract cell-free system and biochemical approaches, we have found two p97 cofactors, Ubxn7 and Faf1, which can interact with p97 during replisome disassembly during S-phase. We show only Ubxn7, however, facilitates efficient replisome disassembly. Ubxn7 delivers this role through its interaction via independent domains with both Cul2Lrr1 and p97 to allow coupling between Mcm7 ubiquitylation and its removal from chromatin. Our data therefore characterize Ubxn7 as the first substrate-specific p97 cofactor regulating replisome disassembly in vertebrates and a rationale for the efficacy of the Cul2Lrr1 replisome unloading pathway in unperturbed S-phase.

Integrated Genomic and Metabolomic Analysis Illuminates Key Secreted Metabolites Produced by the Novel Endophyte Bacillus halotolerans Cal.l.30 Involved in Diverse Biological Control Activities.

The endophytic strain Cal.l.30, isolated from the medicinal plant Calendula officinalis, was selected among seven Bacillus strains with plant growth promoting activity and strong biological potential against the postharvest fungal pathogen Botrytis cinerea. Treatment by inoculating Cal.l.30 bacterial cell culture or cell free supernatant on harvested grapes and cherry tomato fruits, significantly reduced gray mold disease severity index and disease incidence. Based on 16S rRNA sequence analysis and whole genome phylogeny, Cal.l.30 was identified as Bacillus halotolerans. Genome mining revealed that B. halotolerans Cal.l.30 is endowed with a diverse arsenal of secondary metabolite biosynthetic gene clusters (SM-BGCs) responsible for metabolite production with antimicrobial properties. A sub-set of the identified SM-BGCs (mojavensin A, 'bacillunoic acid') appears to be the result of recent horizontal gene transfer events. Its genome was also mined for CAZymes associated with antifungal activity. Further UHPLC-HRMS analysis indicated that Cal.l.30 synthesizes and secretes secondary metabolites with antimicrobial activity, including the lipopeptides, fengycin, surfactin and mojavensin A, bacillaene isoforms, L-dihydroanticapsin and bacillibactin. Other compounds with known antimicrobial activity were also detected, such as azelaic acid, 15- hydroxypentadecanoid acid and 2-hydroxyphenylacetic acid. The genomic and metabolomic features of the B. halotolerans Cal.l.30 provided new perspectives on the exploitation of novel Bacillus sp. as a biocontrol agent.

Genomic Analysis and Secondary Metabolites Production of the Endophytic Bacillus velezensis Bvel1: A Biocontrol Agent against Botrytis cinerea Causing Bunch Rot in Post-Harvest Table Grapes.

Botrytis bunch rot caused by Botrytis cinerea is one of the most economically significant post-harvest diseases of grapes. In the present study, we showed that the bacterial strain Bvel1 is phylogenetically affiliated to Bacillus velezensis species. The strain Bvel1 and its secreted metabolites exerted an antifungal activity, under in vitro conditions, against B. cinerea. UHPLC-HRMS chemical analysis revealed that iturin A2, surfactin-C13 and -C15, oxydifficidin, bacillibactin, L-dihydroanticapsin, and azelaic acid were among the metabolites secreted by Bvel1. Treatment of wounded grape berries with Bacillus sp. Bvel1 cell culture was effective for controlling grey mold ingress and expansion in vivo. The effectiveness of this biological control agent was a function of the cell culture concentration of the antagonist applied, while preventive treatment proved to be more effective compared to curative. The strain Bvel1 exhibited an adequate colonization efficiency in wounded grapes. The whole-genome phylogeny, combined with ANI and dDDH analyses, provided compelling evidence that the strain Bvel1 should be taxonomically classified as Bacillus velezensis. Genome mining approaches showed that the strain Bvel1 harbors 13 antimicrobial biosynthetic gene clusters, including iturin A, fengycin, surfactin, bacilysin, difficidin, bacillaene, and bacillibactin. The results provide new insights into the understanding of the endophytic Bacillus velezensis Bvel1 biocontrol mechanism against post-harvest fungal pathogens, including bunch rot disease in grape berries.

Structure-Function Analysis of the Periplasmic Escherichia coli Cyclophilin PpiA in Relation to Biofilm Formation.

The presence of peptidyl-prolyl cis/trans isomerases (PPIases, EC: 5.2.1.8) in all domains of life indicates their biological importance. Cyclophilin PpiA, present in the periplasm of gram-negative bacteria, possesses PPIase activity but its physiological functions are still not clearly defined. Here, we demonstrate that the ΔppiA deletion strain from Escherichia coli exhibits an increased ability for biofilm formation and enhanced swimming motility compared to the wild-type strain. To identify structural features of PpiA which are necessary for the negative modulation of biofilm formation, we constructed a series of mutant PpiA proteins using a combination of error-prone and site-directed mutagenesis approaches. We show that the negative effect of PpiA on biofilm formation is not dependent on its PPIase activity, since PpiA mutants with a reduced PPIase activity are able to complement the ΔppiA strain during biofilm growth.

Functional analysis of the cyclophilin PpiB role in bacterial cell division.

Escherichia coli PpiB is a peptidyl-prolyl cis/trans isomerase (PPIase, EC: 5.2.1.8) with chaperone activity. Here, we show that the ΔppiB deletion strain and the PpiB over-expression wild-type strain are both characterized by defects in cell division involving milder or severe cell filamentation, respectively. Using various PpiB mutants, we show that the PPIase activity of PpiB is necessary for the observed cell filamentation, whereas other structural features apart from the active site are also important for this phenotype. Early divisome components zipA and ftsZ showed decreased expression in ΔppiB cells, whereas the corresponding proteins partially suppressed the division phenotype of ΔppiB cells as well. Although PpiB itself has no obvious specific affinity for the septal ring as a GFP translational fusion showed a diffuse cytoplasmic localization, it interacts with FtsZ employing the C-terminal FtsZ domain, decreases its GTPase activity and when over-expressed shows an inhibitory effect on the proper FtsZ localization at future division sites. Furthermore, additional putative PpiB prey proteins are able to partially restore the ΔppiB phenotype indicating that PpiB is able to control bacterial cell division by probably modulating the function of various other proteins which are indirectly associated with the process.

Functional analysis of the two cyclophilin isoforms of Sinorhizobium meliloti.

The nitrogen fixing Sinorhizobium meliloti possesses two genes, ppiA and ppiB, encoding two cyclophilin isoforms which belong to the superfamily of peptidyl prolyl cis/trans isomerases (PPIase, EC: 5.2.1.8). Here, we functionally characterize the two proteins and we demonstrate that both recombinant cyclophilins are able to isomerise the Suc-AAPF-pNA synthetic peptide but neither of them displays chaperone function in the citrate synthase thermal aggregation assay. Furthermore, we observe that the expression of both enzymes increases the viability of E. coli BL21 in the presence of abiotic stress conditions such as increased heat and salt concentration. Our results support and strengthen previous high-throughput studies implicating S. meliloti cyclophilins in various stress conditions.

Structural and functional analysis of cyclophilin PpiB mutants supports an in vivo function not limited to prolyl isomerization activity.

Escherichia coli cyclophilin PpiB is a peptidyl-prolyl cis/trans isomerase (PPIase, EC: 5.2.1.8), involved in the negative modulation of various bacterial processes, such as swimming and swarming motility and biofilm formation ability. In this study, we show that PpiB possesses also a chaperone function as it can prevent the thermal denaturation of citrate synthase even with essentially eliminated PPIase activity. We demonstrate, using active site mutations, that the PPIase activity of PpiB is required in all processes, except for the negative effect on swimming, indicating a possible isomerase-independent function. Additionally, we show that the reduced PPIase activity of PpiB does not prevent the association with all prey proteins tested and that the PPIase active site is not involved necessarily in each association. We also used a random mutagenesis approach, to identify amino acid residues apart from the catalytic site, which are necessary for PpiB function. The combination of enzymatic studies concerning the PPIase and chaperone activities of each mutant protein, with structural analyses based on 3D models, provided further insights into the effects of the mutations on the function of PpiB and showed the importance of structural features in addition to the catalytic site, for its in vivo role.

Cyclophilin PpiB is involved in motility and biofilm formation via its functional association with certain proteins.

PpiB belongs to the superfamily of peptidyl-prolyl cis/trans isomerases (PPIases, EC: 5.2.1.8), which catalyze the rate-limiting protein folding step at peptidyl-prolyl bonds and control several biological processes. In this study, we show that PpiB acts as a negative effector of motility and biofilm formation ability of Escherichia coli. We identify multicopy suppressors of each ΔppiB phenotype among putative PpiB prey proteins which upon deletion are often characterized by analogous phenotypes. Many putative preys show similar gene expression in wild-type and ΔppiB genetic backgrounds implying possible post-translational modifications by PpiB. We further conducted in vivo and in vitro interaction screens to determine which of them represent true preys. For DnaK, acetyl-CoA carboxylase, biotin carboxylase subunit (AccC) and phosphate acetyltransferase (Pta) we also showed a direct role of PpiB in the functional control of these proteins because it increased the measured enzyme activity of each protein and further interfered with DnaK localization and the correct folding of AccC. Taken together, these results indicate that PpiB is involved in diverse regulatory mechanisms to negatively modulate motility and biofilm formation via its functional association with certain protein substrates.