Are realistic details important for learning with visualizations or can depth cues provide sufficient guidance?

The optimal choice of the level of realism in instructional visualizations is a difficult task. Previous studies suggest that realism can overwhelm learners, but a growing body of research demonstrates that realistic details can enhance learning. In the first experiment (n = 107), it was assessed whether learning using realistic visualizations can be distracting and therefore particularly benefits from pre-training. Participants learned the anatomy of the parotid gland using labeled visualizations. While pre-training did not have an effect, a more realistic visualization enhanced learning compared to a schematic visualization. In the second experiment (n = 132), a schematic diagram was compared to a more realistic style featuring basic depth cues, and a highly realistic visualization containing a detailed surface. Regarding retention performance, no significant differences were found. However, an interesting pattern regarding subjective cognitive load ratings emerged: the schematic version received the highest cognitive load ratings, while the version featuring simplified shading was rated as least demanding. The version containing simplified depth cues also elicited lower cognitive load ratings than the detailed visualization. The two experiments demonstrate that fears concerning a detrimental effect of realistic details should not be over-generalized. While schematic visualizations may be easier to visually process in some cases, extracting depth information from contour drawings adds cognitive demands to a learning task. Thus, it is advisable that computer-generated visualizations contain at least simplified forms of shading, while the addition of details does not appear to have a strong positive effect.

Realistic details impact learners independently of split-attention effects.

Realistic visualizations are considered to introduce the risk of distracting learners from relevant information. In two experiments, the interplay between realism and a known form of distraction, the split-attention effect, were investigated. This effect describes that spatially separating relevant information can have a substantial negative effect on learning. The experiments were conducted using short anatomy learning tasks to test whether a combination of realism and split attention would lead to the worst retention performance or, alternatively, whether realism can counteract the negative effects of split attention. The first experiment (n = 125) revealed that realism attenuated the cognitive load induced by split attention, suggesting a compensatory effect of realism (i.e., realism may have helped learners to deal with the detrimental influence of split attention). However, retention performance was not impacted in a similar way, indicating that this compensatory effect on subjective cognitive load may actually be the result of learners' illusion that realistic details are helpful. Split attention significantly reduced retention performance. Experiment 2 (n = 152) resulted in negative effects of realism and split attention on retention. In sum, the experiments suggest that realistic details can affect learners independently of other visual design factors as exemplified by the split-attention effect. Thus, the assumption that realism is likely to distract learners is rendered implausible by the experiments, as the distraction of split attention should have amplified any distractive potential of realistic details. However, the results also suggest that the effects of realism on learning are still somewhat unpredictable.

When color coding backfires: A guidance reversal effect when learning with realistic visualizations.

Digital learning increasingly makes use of realistic visualizations, although realism can be demanding for learners. Color coding is a popular way of helping learners understand visualizations and has been found to aid in learning with detailed visualizations. However, previous research has shown that color coding must not always be an effective aid, and that it even may reduce retention when used with simple visualizations. This study assessed whether the presence of color coding in learning tests has an effect after having learned using a detailed visualization that either featured color cues or one that did not. The results indicate that color coding helps learners the most if the learning tests also feature color coding. Importantly, learning with color-coded visualizations and being tested without color cues leads to the worst results in retention and transfer tests. Regarding transfer, color coding in the testing visualization boosts performance regardless of the presence of color cues in the learning phase. The results of this study challenge popular perspectives aiming at optimizing learning by removing potential sources of difficulty. Depending on the learning test, it may be more effective to keep a certain level of difficulty in the learning task when learning with digital media.

COVID-19 information fatigue? A case study of a German university website during two waves of the pandemic.

The COVID-19 pandemic has resulted in the ubiquity of health-related information, disseminated using digital technology. However, recent research suggests that this accessibility of (often negative) information can induce adverse psychological effects, including anxiety, panic-based hoarding, and other unhealthy behaviors. Some of these consequences have been explained with the idea of an information overload. Considering these current developments, it may become harder to effectively communicate COVID-19-related information in smaller, local contexts, such as universities. By analyzing the page views and searches on the website of a university of education in Germany, we derive recommendations for the delivery of information of local organizations. One conclusion is that the need for information during the pandemic decreases as time passes (at least at the local level of institutions such as universities), and even new emergencies such as the beginning of the second wave of COVID-19 only affect this behavioral pattern to a minor extent. As a result of this COVID-19 information fatigue, strategies to keep members of institutions informed are discussed. In addition, we suggest developing a mobile app for delivering individualized information right on hand using machine learning and natural language processing strategies. In sum, individual organizations interested in keeping their members informed concerning COVID-19 should consider the use of personalized information strategies that avoid inducing negative emotional states. Moreover, potentials for connecting people using digital technology could be harnessed in local organizations.

Visualizing pathogens: Disfluent shapes of pathogens increase their perceived complexity and danger while realism and disfluency boost the credibility of visualizations.

During the COVID-19 pandemic, the public was regularly presented with visualizations of the viral pathogen causing this disease. Since there are several ways of visually communicating information, we investigate whether different types of visualizations affect how viewers judge the credibility of information as well as the complexity and potential harm of pathogens. A first experiment was conducted to assess whether a round, fluent shape elicits a different response than pathogens featuring disfluent components such as thread-like appendages. Visualizations of disfluent bacteria were rated as more credible than those of fluent bacteria. In Experiment 2, bacteria were either presented as realistic renderings or as cartoon-like line drawings (varied between-subjects). Furthermore, half of the six bacteria had fluent shapes, while the other half featured disfluent shapes, resulting in the within-subjects factor of fluency. Participants were asked to rate the credibility, complexity, and risk of serious illness associated with these bacteria. We found that disfluent bacteria were perceived as having a more complex metabolism and as holding a higher risk for serious illness. Furthermore, realism and disfluent shapes increase the credibility of visualizations, but not the credibility of additional information. These results have important implications for the field of science communication.

COVID-19 as an accelerator for digitalization at a German university: Establishing hybrid campuses in times of crisis.

As a result of the COVID-19 outbreak, teaching in universities needed to be quickly transitioned from regular on-campus classes into technology-enhanced teaching formats. In this article, we present the case study of Chemnitz University of Technology (Germany), where digital classes were introduced in a matter of weeks. By analyzing syllabus data, we found that the use of video and video conferencing is an important current development. Related to these findings, we present evidence from instructional psychology and social media research that can help in the design of teaching during this crisis. We highlight the need for multimodal learning, that is, learning settings that use multiple sensory modalities. Importantly, we present a strategy of hybrid campuses for this and potential future emergencies. This approach describes how the social distancing measures currently in effect can be used to re-think higher education based on a reasonable use of technology. Taken together, the COVID-19 crisis can be a time of major reform in higher education that will accelerate the process of digitalization in an unprecedented way.

Embodied learning: introducing a taxonomy based on bodily engagement and task integration.

Research on learning and education is increasingly influenced by theories of embodied cognition. Several embodiment-based interventions have been empirically investigated, including gesturing, interactive digital media, and bodily activity in general. This review aims to present the most important theoretical foundations of embodied cognition and their application to educational research. Furthermore, we critically review recent research concerning the effectiveness of embodiment interventions and develop a taxonomy to more properly characterize research on embodied cognition. The main dimensions of this taxonomy are bodily engagement (i.e. how much bodily activity is involved) and task integration (i.e. whether bodily activities are related to a learning task in a meaningful way or not). By locating studies on the 2 × 2 grid resulting from this taxonomy and assessing the corresponding learning outcomes, we identify opportunities, problems, and challenges of research on embodied learning.

Measuring Cognitive Load in Embodied Learning Settings.

In recent years, research on embodied cognition has inspired a number of studies on multimedia learning and instructional psychology. However, in contrast to traditional research on education and multimedia learning, studies on embodied learning (i.e., focusing on bodily action and perception in the context of education) in some cases pose new problems for the measurement of cognitive load. This review provides an overview over recent studies on embodied learning in which cognitive load was measured using surveys, behavioral data, or physiological measures. The different methods are assessed in terms of their success in finding differences of cognitive load in embodied learning scenarios. At the same time, we highlight the most important challenges for researchers aiming to include these measures into their study designs. The main issues we identified are: (1) Subjective measures must be appropriately phrased to be useful for embodied learning; (2) recent findings indicate potentials as well as problematic aspects of dual-task measures; (3) the use of physiological measures offers great potential, but may require mobile equipment in the context of embodied scenarios; (4) meta-cognitive measures can be useful extensions of cognitive load measurement for embodied learning.

Bodily Effort Enhances Learning and Metacognition: Investigating the Relation Between Physical Effort and Cognition Using Dual-Process Models of Embodiment.

Recent embodiment research revealed that cognitive processes can be influenced by bodily cues. Some of these cues were found to elicit disparate effects on cognition. For instance, weight sensations can inhibit problem-solving performance, but were shown to increase judgments regarding recall probability (judgments of learning; JOLs) in memory tasks. We investigated the effects of physical effort on learning and metacognition by conducting two studies in which we varied whether a backpack was worn or not while 20 nouns were to be learned. Participants entered a JOL for each word and completed a recall test. Experiment 1 (N = 18) revealed that exerting physical effort by wearing a backpack led to higher JOLs for easy nouns, without a notable effect on difficult nouns. Participants who wore a backpack reached higher recall scores. Therefore, physical effort may act as a form of desirable difficulty during learning. In Experiment 2 (N = 30), the influence of physical effort on JOL s and learning disappeared when more difficult nouns were to be learned, implying that a high cognitive load may diminish bodily effects. These findings suggest that physical effort mainly influences superficial modes of thought and raise doubts concerning the explanatory power of metaphor-centered accounts of embodiment for higher-level cognition.

Investigating conceptions of intentional action by analyzing participant generated scenarios.

We describe and report on results of employing a new method for analyzing lay conceptions of intentional and unintentional action. Instead of asking people for their conceptual intuitions with regard to construed scenarios, we asked our participants to come up with their own scenarios and to explain why these are examples of intentional or unintentional actions. By way of content analysis, we extracted contexts and components that people associated with these action types. Our participants associated unintentional actions predominantly with bad outcomes for all persons involved and linked intentional actions more strongly to positive outcomes, especially concerning the agent. People's conceptions of intentional action seem to involve more aspects than commonly assumed in philosophical models of intentional action that solely stress the importance of intentions, desires, and beliefs. The additional aspects include decisions and thoughts about the action. In addition, we found that the criteria that participants generated for unintentional actions are not a mere inversion of those used in explanations for intentional actions. Associations between involuntariness and unintentional action seem to be stronger than associations between aspects of voluntariness and intentional action.

Forced-choice decision-making in modified trolley dilemma situations: a virtual reality and eye tracking study.

Based on the frameworks of dual-process theories, we examined the interplay between intuitive and controlled cognitive processes related to moral and social judgments. In a virtual reality (VR) setting we performed an experiment investigating the progression from fast, automatic decisions towards more controlled decisions over multiple trials in the context of a sacrificing scenario. We repeatedly exposed participants to a modified ten-to-one version and to three one-to-one versions of the trolley dilemma in VR and varied avatar properties, such as their gender and ethnicity, and their orientation in space. We also investigated the influence of arousing music on decisions. Our experiment replicated the behavioral pattern observed in studies using text versions of the trolley dilemma, thereby validating the use of virtual environments in research on moral judgments. Additionally, we found a general tendency towards sacrificing male individuals which correlated with socially desirable responding. As indicated by differences in response times, the ten-to-one version of the trolley dilemma seems to be faster to decide than decisions requiring comparisons based on specific avatar properties as a result of differing moral content. Building upon research on music-based emotion induction, we used music to induce emotional arousal on a physiological level as measured by pupil diameter. We found a specific temporal signature displaying a peak in arousal around the moment of decision. This signature occurs independently of the overall arousal level. Furthermore, we found context-dependent gaze durations during sacrificing decisions, leading participants to look prolonged at their victim if they had to choose between avatars differing in gender. Our study confirmed that moral decisions can be explained within the framework of dual-process theories and shows that pupillometric measurements are a promising tool for investigating affective responses in dilemma situations.