Visioning a food system for equitable transition towards sustainable diets.

The Global Goals to end hunger requires interpretation of problems, and change across multiple domains. We facilitated a workshop aimed at understanding how stakeholders problematise sustainable diet transition (SDT) among a previously-marginalised social group. Using the systems thinking approach, three sub-systems, access to dietary diversity, sustainable beneficiation of natural capital, and 'food choice for well-being', highlighted the main forces governing the current context, and future interventions. Moreover, when viewed as co-evolving processes within the multi-level perspective, our identified microlevel leverage points - multi-faceted literacy, youth empowerment, deliberative policy-making, promotion of sustainable diet aspirations - can be linked and developed through existing national macrolevel strategies. Thus, by reconsidering knowledge use in the pursuit sustainability, transformational SDT can streamline multiple outcomes to restructure socio-technical sectors, reconnect people to nature-based solutions and, support legitimate aspirations. The approach could be applied in countries having complex socio-political legacy and to bridge the local-global goals coherently.

Effect of geographical location, insect type and cooking method on the nutritional composition of insects consumed in South Africa.

Edible insects may be a sustainable source of protein and some other nutrients, especially for low-economic-status communities. The current study determined the influence of insect type, geographic location, and cooking method on the nutritional composition of insects. The investigation would contribute to the maximal derivation of the nutritional benefits of insects. Dried samples of four insect types, G. belina (mopani worm), Gynanisa caterpillar, termite soldiers/workers, and termite alates, were procured from different street vendors across Vhembe district in Limpopo Province, South Africa. G. belina samples were cooked by frying, boiling with and without salt addition. Generally, nutrient content varied significantly with insect type and geographic location (p<0.05). Protein content varied from 40 g/100 g in termite alates to 69.75 g/100 g in termite soldiers/workers. Termite soldiers/workers had the highest iron content (range: 545-629.5 mg/kg), whilst Gynanisa caterpillar had the highest zinc content (range: 122.14-150.33 mg/kg). Similarly, Gynanisa caterpillar had the highest levels of lysine (range: 0.80-4.53 g/100g), threonine (range: 0.79-2.64 g/100g) and isoleucine (range: 0.63-2.33). On the other hand termite soldiers/workers had the highest levels of valine (range: 2.20-3.47 g/100g), leucine (range: 2.49-3.87 g/100g) and phenylalanine (range: 1.38-3.55 g/100g). Cooking method significantly affected nutrient retention. Boiling with salt added resulted in the highest retention of protein and total mineral content (ash), and, therefore, seems a suitable method for cooking insects. The findings indicate that, if optimally selected and cooked, edible insects can contribute significantly to the alleviation of protein, zinc, and iron deficiencies in target communities.

Rapidly increasing body mass index among children, adolescents and young adults in a transitioning population, South Africa, 2008-15.

Background: There is a global epidemic of overweight and obesity; however, this rate of increase is even greater in some low- and middle-income countries (LMIC). South Africa (SA) is undergoing rapid socioeconomic and demographic changes that have triggered a rapid nutrition transition. The paper focuses on the recent rate of change of body mass index (BMI) among children, adolescents and young adults, further stratified by key sociodemographic factors. Methods: We analysed mean BMI of 28 247 individuals (including children) from 7301 households by age and year, from anthropometric data from four national cross-sectional (repeated panel) surveys using non-linear fitted curves and associated 95% confidence intervals. Results: From 2008 to 2015, there was rapid rise in mean BMI in the 6-25 age band, with the highest risk (3-4+ BMI unit increase) among children aged 8-10 years. The increase was largely among females in urban areas and of middle-high socioeconomic standing. Prominent gains were also observed in certain rural areas, with extensive geographical heterogeneity across the country. Conclusions: We have demonstrated a major deviation from the current understanding of patterns of BMI increase, with a rate of increase substantially greater in the developing world context compared with the global pattern. This population-wide effect will have major consequences for national development as the epidemic of related non-communicable disease unfolds, and will overtax the national health care budget. Our refined understanding highlights that risks are further compounded for certain groups/places, and emphasizes that urgent geographical and population-targeted interventions are necessary. These interventions could include a sugar tax, clearer food labelling, revised school feeding programmes and mandatory bans on unhealthy food marketing to children.The scenario unfolding in South Africa will likely be followed in other LMICs.

Spatial autocorrelation and the scaling of species-environment relationships.

Issues of residual spatial autocorrelation (RSA) and spatial scale are critical to the study of species-environment relationships, because RSA invalidates many statistical procedures, while the scale of analysis affects the quantification of these relationships. Although these issues independently are widely covered in the literature, only sparse attention is given to their integration. This paper focuses on the interplay between RSA and the spatial scaling of species-environment relationships. Using a hypothetical species in an artificial landscape, we show that a mismatch between the scale of analysis and the scale of a species' response to its environment leads to a decrease in the portion of variation explained by environmental predictors. Moreover, it results in RSA and biased regression coefficients. This bias stems from error-predictor dependencies due to the scale mismatch, the magnitude of which depends on the interaction between the scale of landscape heterogeneity and the scale of a species' response to this heterogeneity. We show that explicitly considering scale effects on RSA can reveal the characteristic scale of a species' response to its environment. This is important, because the estimation of species-environment relationships using spatial regression methods proves to be erroneous in case of a scale mismatch, leading to spurious conclusions when scaling issues are not explicitly considered. The findings presented here highlight the importance of examining the appropriateness of the spatial scales used in analyses, since scale mismatches affect the rigor of statistical analyses and thereby the ability to understand the processes underlying spatial patterning in ecological phenomena.

Implementing immunocontraception in free-ranging African elephants at Makalali conservancy.

The goal of programmes to provide contraception for elephants should be to formulate an approach that does not require the relocation or immobilisation of the same individual year after year, which would be long-lasting and cause minimal disruption to social and reproductive behaviour. The programmes should be simple to administer, safe and cost-effective, and must meet the objectives defined by managers in the field. An immunocontraceptive programme was initiated in a small free-roaming population of elephants at the Greater Makalali Private Game Reserve in Limpopo Province in 2000 to determine whether the porcine zona pellucida (pZP) vaccine can successfully control population sizes. Further objectives were to determine implementation costs and efficiency through a multi-faceted approach. We have demonstrated that immunocontraception meets the objectives set by managers in the field. Minimal social disruption was observed over the course of treatment, with the mode of delivery (ground or aerial vaccinations) determining the degree of stress within herds and speed of resumption of normal movement patterns. Aerial vaccinations resulted in the least disturbance, with target herds being approachable within a day. In 2005, implementation costs were R880-R1000/elephant/year, inclusive of darts, vaccine, helicopter and veterinary assistance. Irrespective of the source or method of vaccine delivery, a non-pregnant elephant is rendered infertile from 1st vaccine administration. The sooner immunocontraception is implemented, the sooner population growth rates can be controlled. pZP contraception is a realistic alternative management tool, particularly if used as part of a long-term management strategy. Mass-darting from the air eliminates the need for detailed individual histories of each elephant or for employing a person to monitor elephants. Thus, implementation of immunocontraception in larger populations is feasible and practical.

Time of feeding and possible associated thermoregulatory benefits in bronze mannikins Lonchura cucullata.

Birds with a small body size have a high surface area to volume ratio, and this means that they have a high rate of heat loss to the environment. Birds may employ behavioural strategies in order to counter this heat loss. The adjustment of feeding patterns in the short term is probably the least documented of all of these strategies. Feeding results in the specific dynamic effect (SDE) which increases the metabolic rate of animals after a feeding bout. This increase in metabolic rate has been reported to possibly substitute for thermoregulatory costs in a variety of endotherms, including house wrens (Troglodytes aedon) and a variety of finch species. The thermoneutral zone was described for bronze mannikins, Lonchura cucullata (T(lc)=33.7 degrees C), and the bronze mannikins' post-absorptive physiology was described within this thermoneutral zone. Bronze mannikin mean basal metabolic rate (0.043+/-0.0038 S.E. ml O(2) min(-1) g(-1)), daytime resting metabolic rates (0.0549+/-0.0088 S.E. ml O(2) min(-1) g(-1)), and diurnal metabolic responses were described. The SDE in bronze mannikins was demonstrated within the thermoneutral zone, and was quantified. The mean magnitude of the SDE was 26.42% of mean total metabolism of post-absorptive birds. The magnitude of this SDE was independent of meal size and bird body mass. Assuming a 100% substitution, the presence of the SDE may afford bronze mannikins a maximum thermoregulatory energy saving of approximately 71.76 J g(-1) over a 300-min period.