Enhanced regional connectivity between western North American national parks will increase persistence of mammal species diversity.

Many protected areas worldwide increasingly resemble habitat isolates embedded in human-modified landscapes. However, establishing linkages among protected areas could significantly reduce species-loss rates. Here we present a novel method having broad applicability for assessing enhanced regional connectivity on persistence of mammal diversity. We combine theoretically-derived species relaxation rates for mammal communities with empirically-derived pathways. We assess the value of enhanced regional connectivity for two hypothetical networks of national parks in western North America: the Yellowstone-Glacier network and the Mount Rainier-North Cascades network. Linking the Yellowstone and Glacier park assemblages by eliminating barriers to movement in identified mammal dispersal pathways and by incorporating adjacent wilderness areas and known ungulate migratory routes into a protected area network would greatly enlarge available habitat. This would enhance medium to large mammal species persistence time by factor of 4.3, on average, or ~ 682 generations relative to individual parks. Similarly, linking Mount Rainier and North Cascades park assemblages would enhance mammal species persistence time by a factor of 4.3, on average, or ~305 generations relative to individual parks. Enhancing regional connectivity among western North America parks could serve as an important template for landscape-scale conservation in the 21st century.

Guiding principles for rewilding.

There has been much recent interest in the concept of rewilding as a tool for nature conservation, but also confusion over the idea, which has limited its utility. We developed a unifying definition and 10 guiding principles for rewilding through a survey of 59 rewilding experts, a summary of key organizations' rewilding visions, and workshops involving over 100 participants from around the world. The guiding principles convey that rewilding exits on a continuum of scale, connectivity, and level of human influence and aims to restore ecosystem structure and functions to achieve a self-sustaining autonomous nature. These principles clarify the concept of rewilding and improve its effectiveness as a tool to achieve global conservation targets, including those of the UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration and post-2020 Global Biodiversity Framework. Finally, we suggest differences in rewilding perspectives lie largely in the extent to which it is seen as achievable and in specific interventions. An understanding of the context of rewilding projects is the key to success, and careful site-specific interpretations will help achieve the aims of rewilding.

Recientemente ha habido mucho interés por el concepto de retorno a la vida silvestre como herramienta para la conservación de la naturaleza, pero también ha habido confusión por la idea que ha limitado su utilidad. Desarrollamos una definición unificadora y diez principios básicos para el retorno a la vida silvestre por medio de encuestas a 59 expertos en retorno a la vida silvestre, un resumen de las visiones de las organizaciones más importantes para el retorno a la vida silvestre y talleres que involucraron a más de 100 participantes de todo el mundo. Los principios básicos transmiten que el retorno a la vida silvestre existe en un continuo de escala, conectividad y nivel de influencia humana y que su objetivo es restaurar la estructura y las funciones del ecosistema para lograr una naturaleza autónoma autosustentable. Estos principios aclaran el concepto del retorno a la vida silvestre e incrementan su efectividad como herramienta para lograr los objetivos mundiales de conservación, incluyendo aquellos de la Década de la ONU para la Restauración de Ecosistemas y el Marco de Trabajo de la Biodiversidad Global post 2020. Finalmente, sugerimos que las diferencias en las perspectivas del retorno a la vida silvestre yacen principalmente en el grado al que es visto como factible y en intervenciones específicas. Un entendimiento del contexto de los proyectos de retorno a la vida silvestre es importante para el éxito, y las interpretaciones específicas de sitio ayudarán a lograr las metas del retorno a la vida silvestre. Principios Básicos para el Retorno a la Vida Silvestre.

Understanding motivations to participate in an observational research study: Why do patients enroll?

By understanding common motivations for participating in observational research studies, clinicians may better understand the perceived benefits of research participation from their clients' perspective. We enrolled 164 cardiac patients in a study about the effects of gratitude and optimism. Two weeks post-enrollment, participants completed a four-item questionnaire regarding motivations for study enrollment. Altruistic motivation ranked highest, while intellectual, health-related, and financial motivations rated lower. Four subgroups of participants emerged, each with distinct characteristics and different priorities for participating. These findings may help front-line clinicians to understand which motivations for participation apply to their clients who enroll in non-treatment-based research projects.

Use of spaced education to deliver a curriculum in quality, safety and value for postgraduate medical trainees: trainee satisfaction and knowledge.

PURPOSE: Quality, patient safety and value are important topics for graduate medical education (GME). Spaced education delivers case-based content in a structured longitudinal experience. Use of spaced education to deliver quality and safety education in GME at an institutional level has not been previously evaluated. OBJECTIVES: To implement a spaced education course in quality, safety and value; to assess learner satisfaction; and to describe trainee knowledge in these areas. METHODS: We developed a case-based spaced education course addressing learning objectives related to quality, safety and value. This course was offered to residents and fellows about two-thirds into the academic year (March 2014) and new trainees during orientation (June 2014). We assessed learner satisfaction by reviewing the course completion rate and a postcourse survey, and trainee knowledge by the per cent of correct responses. RESULTS: The course was offered to 1950 trainees. A total of 305 (15.6%) enrolled in the course; 265/305 (86.9%) answered at least one question, and 106/305 (34.8%) completed the course. Fewer participants completed the March programme compared with the orientation programme (42/177 (23.7%) vs 64/128 (50.0%), p<0.001). Completion rates differed by specialty, 80/199 (40.2%) in non-surgical specialties compared with 16/106 (24.5%) in surgical specialties (p=0.008). The proportion of questions answered correctly on the first attempt was 53.2% (95% CI 49.4% to 56.9%). Satisfaction among those completing the programme was high. CONCLUSIONS: Spaced education can help deliver and assess learners' understanding of quality, safety and value principles. Offering a voluntary course may result in low completion. Learners were satisfied with their experience and were introduced to new concepts.

Within-prison drug injection among HIV-infected Ukrainian prisoners: prevalence and correlates of an extremely high-risk behaviour.

BACKGROUND: In Ukraine, HIV-infection, injection drug use, and incarceration are syndemic; however, few services are available to incarcerated people who inject drugs (PWIDs). While data are limited internationally, within-prison drug injection (WP-DI) appears widespread and may pose significant challenges in countries like Ukraine, where PWIDs contribute heavily to HIV incidence. To date, WP-DI has not been specifically examined among HIV-infected prisoners, the only persons that can transmit HIV. METHODS: A convenience sample of 97 HIV-infected adults recently released from prison within 1-12 months was recruited in two major Ukrainian cities. Post-release surveys inquired about WP-DI and injection equipment sharing, as well as current and prior drug use and injection, mental health, and access to within-prison treatment for HIV and other comorbidities. Logistic regression identified independent correlates of WP-DI. RESULTS: Complete data for WP-DI were available for 95 (97.9%) respondents. Overall, 54 (56.8%) reported WP-DI, among whom 40 (74.1%) shared injecting equipment with a mean of 4.4 (range 0-30) other injectors per needle/syringe. Independent correlates of WP-DI were recruitment in Kyiv (AOR 7.46, p=0.003), male gender (AOR 22.07, p=0.006), and active pre-incarceration opioid use (AOR 8.66, p=0.005). CONCLUSIONS: Among these recently released HIV-infected prisoners, WP-DI and injection equipment sharing were frequent and involved many injecting partners per needle/syringe. The overwhelming majority of respondents reporting WP-DI used opioids both before and after incarceration, suggesting that implementation of evidence-based harm reduction practices, such as opioid substitution therapy and/or needle/syringe exchange programmes within prison, is crucial to addressing continuing HIV transmission among PWIDs within prison settings. The positive correlation between Kyiv site and WP-DI suggests that additional structural interventions may be useful.

Integration of health services improves multiple healthcare outcomes among HIV-infected people who inject drugs in Ukraine.

BACKGROUND: People who inject drugs (PWID) experience poor outcomes and fuel HIV epidemics in middle-income countries in Eastern Europe and Central Asia. We assess integrated/co-located (ICL) healthcare for HIV-infected PWID, which despite international recommendations, is neither widely available nor empirically examined. METHODS: A 2010 cross-sectional study randomly sampled 296 HIV-infected opioid-dependent PWID from two representative HIV-endemic regions in Ukraine where ICL, non-co-located (NCL) and harm reduction/outreach (HRO) settings are available. ICL settings provide onsite HIV, addiction, and tuberculosis services, NCLs only treat addiction, and HROs provide counseling, needles/syringes, and referrals, but no opioid substitution therapy (OST). The primary outcome was receipt of quality healthcare, measured using a quality healthcare indicator (QHI) composite score representing percentage of eight guidelines-based recommended indicators met for HIV, addiction and tuberculosis treatment. The secondary outcomes were individual QHIs and health-related quality-of-life (HRQoL). RESULTS: On average, ICL-participants had significantly higher QHI composite scores compared to NCL- and HRO-participants (71.9% versus 54.8% versus 37.0%, p<0.001) even after controlling for potential confounders. Compared to NCL-participants, ICL-participants were significantly more likely to receive antiretroviral therapy (49.5% versus 19.2%, p<0.001), especially if CD4 ≤ 200 (93.8% versus 62.5% p<0.05); guideline-recommended OST dosage (57.3% versus 41.4%, p<0.05); and isoniazid preventive therapy (42.3% versus 11.2%, p<0.001). Subjects receiving OST had significantly higher HRQoL than those not receiving it (p<0.001); however, HRQoL did not differ significantly between ICL- and NCL-participants. CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest that OST alone improves quality-of-life, while receiving care in integrated settings collectively and individually improves healthcare quality indicators for PWID.

High rates of police detention among recently released HIV-infected prisoners in Ukraine: implications for health outcomes.

BACKGROUND: Ukraine's HIV epidemic, primarily affecting people who inject drugs (PWID), is expanding and transitioning despite free opioid substitution therapy (OST) and antiretroviral therapy (ART), two effective ways to reduce HIV transmission. Police detention of PWID not resulting in a formal charge or imprisonment is common, but its prevalence and impact on health are not known. METHOD: HIV-infected individuals (N=97) released from prison within one year were recruited and surveyed in two HIV-endemic Ukrainian cities about post-release police detention experiences. Data on the frequency of police detention, related adverse events, and impact on OST and ART continuity were collected, and correlates of detention were examined using logistic regression. RESULTS: Detention responses were available for 94 (96.9%) participants, of which 55 (58.5%) reported police detentions (mean=9.4 per person-year). For those detained while prescribed OST (N=28) and ART (N=27), medication interruption was common (67.9% and 70.4%, respectively); 23 of 27 participants prescribed OST (85.2%) were detained en route to/from OST treatment. Significant independent correlates of detention without charges included post-release ART prescription (AOR 4.98, p=0.021), current high-risk injection practices (AOR 5.03, p=0.011), male gender (AOR 10.88, p=0.010), and lower lifetime months of imprisonment (AOR 0.99, p=0.031). CONCLUSIONS: HIV-infected individuals recently released from prison in Ukraine experience frequent police detentions, resulting in withdrawal symptoms, confiscation of syringes, and interruptions of essential medications, including ART and OST. Structural changes are urgently needed to reduce police detentions in order to control HIV transmission and improve both individual and public health.

Trophic downgrading of planet Earth.

Until recently, large apex consumers were ubiquitous across the globe and had been for millions of years. The loss of these animals may be humankind's most pervasive influence on nature. Although such losses are widely viewed as an ethical and aesthetic problem, recent research reveals extensive cascading effects of their disappearance in marine, terrestrial, and freshwater ecosystems worldwide. This empirical work supports long-standing theory about the role of top-down forcing in ecosystems but also highlights the unanticipated impacts of trophic cascades on processes as diverse as the dynamics of disease, wildfire, carbon sequestration, invasive species, and biogeochemical cycles. These findings emphasize the urgent need for interdisciplinary research to forecast the effects of trophic downgrading on process, function, and resilience in global ecosystems.

Pleistocene rewilding: an optimistic agenda for twenty-first century conservation.

Large vertebrates are strong interactors in food webs, yet they were lost from most ecosystems after the dispersal of modern humans from Africa and Eurasia. We call for restoration of missing ecological functions and evolutionary potential of lost North American megafauna using extant conspecifics and related taxa. We refer to this restoration as Pleistocene rewilding; it is conceived as carefully managed ecosystem manipulations whereby costs and benefits are objectively addressed on a case-by-case and locality-by-locality basis. Pleistocene rewilding would deliberately promote large, long-lived species over pest and weed assemblages, facilitate the persistence and ecological effectiveness of megafauna on a global scale, and broaden the underlying premise of conservation from managing extinction to encompass restoring ecological and evolutionary processes. Pleistocene rewilding can begin immediately with species such as Bolson tortoises and feral horses and continue through the coming decades with elephants and Holarctic lions. Our exemplar taxa would contribute biological, economic, and cultural benefits to North America. Owners of large tracts of private land in the central and western United States could be the first to implement this restoration. Risks of Pleistocene rewilding include the possibility of altered disease ecology and associated human health implications, as well as unexpected ecological and sociopolitical consequences of reintroductions. Establishment of programs to monitor suites of species interactions and their consequences for biodiversity and ecosystem health will be a significant challenge. Secure fencing would be a major economic cost, and social challenges will include acceptance of predation as an overriding natural process and the incorporation of pre-Columbian ecological frameworks into conservation strategies.

"A mission-driven discipline": the growth of conservation biology.

Conservation biology emerged in the mid-1980s, drawing on established disciplines and integrating them in pursuit of a coherent goal: the protection and perpetuation of the Earth's biological diversity. Opportunistic in its borrowing and application of knowledge, conservation biology had its roots within the established biological sciences and resource management disciplines but has continually incorporated insights from the empirical experience of resource managers, from the social sciences and humanities, and from diverse cultural sources. The Society for Conservation Biology (SCB) has represented the field's core constituency, while expanding that constituency in keeping with the field's integrative spirit. Conservation Biology has served as SCB's flagship publication, promoting research, dialog, debate, and application of the field's essential concepts. Over the last 20 years the field, SCB, and the journal have evolved to meet changing conservation needs, to explore gaps in our knowledge base, to incorporate new information from related fields, to build professional capacity, and to provide expanded opportunities for international participation. In turn, the field, SCB, and journal have prompted change in related fields, organizations, and publications. In its dedication to advancing the scientific foundations of biodiversity conservation and placing that science at the service of society in a world whose variety, wildness, and beauty we care for conservation biology represents both a continuation and radical reconfiguration of the traditional relationship between science and conservation.

Relationship between the energetic cost of burrowing and genetic variability among populations of the pocket gopher, T. bottae: does physiological fitness correlate with genetic variability?

Many studies have reported relationships between genetic variability and fitness characters in invertebrates, but there is a paucity of such studies in mammals. Here, we use a statistically powerful paired sampling design to test whether the metabolic cost of burrowing, an important physiological trait in the pocket gopher, Thomomys bottae, correlates with genetic variability. Three pairs of pocket gopher populations were used, with each pair selected from a different subspecies and comprising one high genetic variability and one low genetic variability population. Genetic variability was measured using average allozyme heterozygosity and two measures of DNA fingerprint band sharing. In addition, the cost of burrowing for individuals from each population was determined from the oxygen consumption per gram of body mass per unit of work performed. Our results indicate that the cost of burrowing was significantly higher in populations with lower genetic variability (3-way ANCOVA, P=0.0150); mass-adjusted cost of burrowing in the low variability populations averaged 0.57+/-0.24 ml O2 g(-1) kgm(-1) and that in the high variability populations averaged 0.42+/-0.19 ml O2 g(-1) kgm(-1). The magnitude of the population differences in cost of burrowing was associated with the magnitude of difference in genetic variability. We conclude that population differences in genetic variability are reflected in physiological fitness differences for a trait that is essential to gopher survival.

Competitive exclusion between insular Lacerta species (Sauria, Lacertidae) : Notes on experimental Introductions.

Competetive exclusion between Lacerta sicula and L. melisellensis characterizes the small islands of the Adriatic Sea.In 1958 and 1959 M. Radovanovié introduced Lacerta sicula or Lacerta melisellensis onto islands exclusively occupied by the other species. During the summer of 1971 follow-up observations were made on three of these islands, two of which completely lacked representatives of the introduced species. On the third island, the introduced species appears to be replacing the native form. Minor habitat differences permit coexistence, however the situation is dynamic and probably not at equilibrium. A reciprocal introduction involving the two species on the islands of Pod Kopiste and Pod Mrcaru is announced.