Building Better Bridges: Outcomes of a Community-Partnered New School Transition Intervention for Students on the Autism Spectrum.

New school transitions can be challenging for students on the autism spectrum. No published, evidence-based interventions exist to support families and teachers of students transitioning to elementary and secondary school during this critical period. Using Community Partnered Participatory Research, we developed Building Better Bridges (BBB), a caregiver coaching intervention that includes training on effective school communication, educational rights, advocacy, and child preparation strategies. We compared BBB (n = 83) to a module/resources-only comparison (n = 87) in a four-site randomized controlled trial in racially and ethnically diverse, under-resourced communities. In our intent-to-treat analysis, caregivers and teachers in BBB rated students' transitions to the new classroom as more positive, relative to the comparison group. Results suggest this low-cost intervention can improve the transition process for families and students at high risk of poor transitions.

The Construct Validity of the Childhood Joint Attention Rating Scale (C-JARS) in School-Aged Autistic Children.

Preliminary evidence from the Childhood Joint Attention Rating Scale (C-JARS; Mundy et al., 2017) suggests symptoms related to diminished joint attention and the spontaneous sharing of experience with others can be assessed with a parent-report measure in children and adolescents with autism. This study was designed to expand on the previous study by examining the validity of both a Social Symptom (SS) and a Prosocial (PS) scale of the C-JARS in a study of school-aged autistic children (n  = 89) with and without co-occurring intellectual disability (ID), as well as an age matched neurotypical sample (n  = 62). Results indicated that both C-JARS scales were sensitive and specific with respect to identifying the diagnostic status of the children. In addition, the PS scale was sensitive to differences in cognitive abilities (IQ) and sex differences in the autism group. These results are consistent with the hypothesis that joint attention and spontaneous sharing of experience symptoms are not only characteristic of preschool children with autism but may also constitute a developmentally continuous dimension of the social phenotype of autism that can be measured in school-aged children.

Measurements of Spontaneous Communication Initiations in Children with Autism in Preschool through Third Grade Classrooms.

We utilized classroom video observations to examine the frequency and function of spontaneous communication in 112 preschool-3rd grade children with autism within 57 classrooms. Children initiated 7.53 instances (SD = 9.42) of spontaneous communication on average within a 12-minute sample, a rate of 0.69 initiations per minute. Autism features, receptive and expressive language, and adaptive functioning were associated with communication rate. A 4-factor model of spontaneous communication functions exhibited the best relative and absolute fit to the data. Findings highlight, and begin to explain, variability in spontaneous communication children used in classrooms, link individual developmental characteristics to communicative initiations, and provide evidence for conceptualizing and measuring spontaneous communication in learners with autism across classroom activities. Implications and future directions are discussed.

Self-regulation predicts companionship in children with autism.

Self-regulation is associated with many positive outcomes in children with and without autism, including increased mental health and academic achievement, and decreased problem behavior. Less is known regarding whether and how self-regulation and symptoms of mental health challenges (internalizing and externalizing problems) relate to social outcomes, such as friendship quality and loneliness. Parents and teachers of 106 children with autism aged 5-12 reported on children's self-regulation difficulties and externalizing and internalizing symptoms. Four-to-five months later, children reported on the quality of their friendship with their best friend (companionship, conflict, helpfulness, sense of relationship security, closeness), and their feelings of loneliness. Linear regression was used to examine the effects of self-regulation and symptoms of mental health challenges on friendship quality and loneliness. Less self-regulation difficulties predicted stronger companionship and girls had better quality friendships with their best friend than did boys, in terms of companionship, helpfulness, security and closeness, confirming that they have a protective advantage in friendship development. Autism symptoms, IQ, and age were not associated with friendship quality or loneliness. Results highlight the importance of self-regulation and mental health interventions for school-aged children with autism.

Bringing Assessment-to-Instruction (A2i) Technology to Scale: Exploring the Process from Development to Implementation.

Bringing effective, research-based literacy interventions into the classroom is challenging, especially given the cultural and linguistic diversity of today's classrooms. We examined the promise of Assessment-to-Instruction (A2i) technology redesigned to be used at scale to support teachers' implementation of the individualized student instruction (ISI) intervention from kindergarten through third grade. In seven randomized controlled trials, A2i and ISI have demonstrated efficacy. However, the research version of A2i was not scalable. In order to bring A2i to scale in schools serving linguistically diverse students, we carried out the current study across two phases. This study represents both an exploration of what it takes to bring an educational intervention to scale (Phase 1) and a quasi-experiment on the literacy outcomes of learners whose teachers used the technology (Phase 2). We integrated assessments of vocabulary, word decoding, and reading comprehension; revised the A2i algorithms to account for the constellation of skills English learners (ELs) bring to the classroom; updated the user interfaces and added new graphic features; and improved bandwidth and stability of the technology. Findings were mixed, including several non-significant results, a marginally significant intent-to-treat effect on word reading in kindergarten and first grade for English monolingual students and ELs, and one significant interaction effect, which suggested ELs and students with less developed reading skills in second and third grade benefitted most from the intervention. With some caution, we conclude that A2i demonstrates potential to be used at scale and promise of effectiveness for improving code-focused skills for diverse learners.

Evaluating Teacher Language Within General and Special Education Classrooms Serving Elementary Students with Autism.

This study examined how teachers and paraprofessionals in 126 kindergarten-second grade general and special education classrooms talked with their 194 students with autism, and further, how individual student characteristics in language, autism symptoms, and social abilities influenced this talk. Using systematic observational methods and factor analysis, we identified a unidimensional model of teacher language for general and special education classrooms yet observed differences between the settings, with more language observed in special education classrooms-much of which included directives and close-ended questions. Students' receptive vocabulary explained a significant amount of variance in teacher language beyond its shared covariance with social impairment and problem behavior in general education classrooms but was non-significant within special education classrooms. Research implications are discussed.

Concurrent Associations between Expressive Language Ability and Independence in Adolescents and Adults with Fragile X Syndrome.

BACKGROUND: Few individuals with fragile X syndrome (FXS) successfully meet adult normative expectations in education, employment, peer relations, and habitation, although there is within-syndrome variability in this regard. The primary goal of this study was to determine whether expressive language skills contribute to the capacity for independent functioning in adulthood even after controlling for nonverbal cognitive ability. METHODS: Participants were 18- to 23-year-olds with FXS. Expressive language was assessed using the psychometrically validated Expressive Language Sampling (ELS) conversation and narration procedures. The language produced was transcribed and analyzed to yield measures of expressive vocabulary, syntax, and intelligibility. Parents concurrently completed questionnaires on the independent functioning of the participants with FXS. RESULTS: All three ELS measures were significantly corelated with multiple measures of independence. The magnitudes of the correlations were reduced when nonverbal IQ was controlled through partial correlation. Nonetheless, many of the partial correlations were medium to large and several were statistically significant. CONCLUSIONS: Expressive language skills appear to contribute uniquely to the capacity for independence, although longitudinal data are needed to evaluate the possibility of a bidirectional relationship between these domains. Thus, language intervention may be a prerequisite for preparing youth with FXS for an independent adult life.

Predicting Second and Third Graders' Reading Comprehension Gains: Observing Students' and Classmates Talk during Literacy Instruction using COLT.

This paper introduces a new observation system that is designed to investigate students' and teachers' talk during literacy instruction, Creating Opportunities to Learn from Text (COLT). Using video-recorded observations of 2nd-3rd grade literacy instruction (N=51 classrooms, 337 students, 151 observations), we found that nine types of student talk ranged from using non-verbal gestures to generating new ideas. The more a student talked, the greater were his/her reading comprehension (RC) gains. Classmate talk also predicted RC outcomes (total effect size=0.27). We found that 11 types of teacher talk ranged from asking simple questions to encouraging students' thinking and reasoning. Teacher talk predicted student talk but did not predict students' RC gains directly. Findings highlight the importance of each student's discourse during literacy instruction, how classmates' talk contributes to the learning environments that each student experiences, and how this affects RC gains, with implications for improving the effectiveness of literacy instruction.

Secondary Analysis of Reading-Based Activities Utilizing a Scripted Language Approach: Evaluating Interactions Between Students With Autism and Their Interventionists.

Students with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) often exhibit challenges with reading development. Evidence-based interventions and specialized approaches to reading instruction are currently being implemented across educational contexts for learners with ASD (Machalicek et al., 2008), yet there is limited understanding of how core ASD features may impact effective delivery of instruction and student participation. We begin to address this need by evaluating the reciprocity between instructional talk and student participation within a reading intervention utilizing a scripted language approach that was being piloted on students with ASD. Method This study used archival video-recorded observations from the beginning of a reading intervention to examine the interactions between 20 students (18 boys, two girls) with ASD (7-11 years old, M = 9.10, SD = 1.74) and their interventionists (n = 7). Lag sequential analysis was used to examine the frequency of student initiations and responses following the interventionists' use of responsive, open-ended, closed-ended, and directive language. Results Findings describe the types of and illustrate the variability in interactions between students and their interventionists, as well as highlight language categories that are linked to student participation. Conclusions These data provide a snapshot of the nature and quality of interactions between students with ASD and their interventionists. Findings suggest that delivery of instruction, including the language that interventionists use, may be an important area of focus when evaluating the effectiveness of reading-based practices across educational settings for learners with ASD, even within the confines of highly structured interventions.

Profiles of Foundational Learning Components among First Graders.

School readiness includes a constellation of skills and behaviors, such as social and emotional development, language and literacy, and self-regulation that provide a basis critical for classroom participation and learning. Whereas it has been well-established that students who enter kindergarten with weaknesses in language and literacy are more likely to struggle academically, less research has focused on the variability and educational impact of other foundational learning components, including internalizing and externalizing behaviors, particularly in first grade. This study used latent profile analysis to identify the following four subgroups (profiles) of students, using foundational learning components, in a sample of first graders (n = 324): Emergent Hyperactive, Externalizing, Generally Good Students, and Internalizing. Latent class growth analysis illustrated significant differences in the average rate of growth in literacy skills from the beginning to the end of first grade across the four profiles, after controlling for gender and socioeconomic status. Findings indicated the greatest growth in literacy skills for students in the Externalizing profile and the least amount of vocabulary growth for students in the Emergent Hyperactive profile followed by the Internalizing profile. Educational implications of how researchers and educators might consider students' individual differences across profiles of foundational learning components to inform ways to support development and learning in the classroom are discussed.

Direct and Reciprocal Effects among Social Skills, Vocabulary, and Reading Comprehension in First Grade.

Social skills and vocabulary are important areas of development involved in early reading achievement, yet little attention has been given to understanding the dynamic associations among them during the elementary years. This study examined the relations among three dimensions of social skills-cooperation, assertion, and self-control-vocabulary and developing reading comprehension (RC) skills in a longitudinal sample of first graders (n = 468). Using Structural Equation Modeling, reciprocal effects were observed between vocabulary and RC as well as direct effects among social skills, vocabulary, and RC after controlling for the influence of problem behaviors. This study highlights the reciprocal nature of students' vocabulary and RC skills as well as provides preliminary evidence suggesting that social skills play a role in developing vocabulary and RC skills, and further, vocabulary and RC skills play a role in social development during middle childhood. Implications for policy and practice are discussed.

Cluster randomized trial of the classroom SCERTS intervention for elementary students with autism spectrum disorder.

OBJECTIVE: This cluster randomized trial (CRT) evaluated the efficacy of the Classroom Social, Communication, Emotional Regulation, and Transactional Support (SCERTS) Intervention (CSI) compared with usual school-based education with autism training modules (ATM). METHOD: Sixty schools with 197 students with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) in 129 classrooms were randomly assigned to CSI or ATM. Mean student age was 6.79 years (SD 1.05) and 81.2% were male. CSI teachers were trained on the model and provided coaching throughout the school year to assist with implementation. A CRT, with students nested within general and special education classrooms nested within schools, was used to evaluate student outcomes. RESULTS: The CSI group showed significantly better outcomes than the ATM group on observed measures of classroom active engagement with respect to social interaction. The CSI group also had significantly better outcomes on measures of adaptive communication, social skills, and executive functioning with Cohen's d effect sizes ranging from 0.31 to 0.45. CONCLUSION: These findings support the preliminary efficacy of CSI, a classroom-based, teacher-implemented intervention for improving active engagement, adaptive communication, social skills, executive functioning, and problem behavior within a heterogeneous sample of students with ASD. This makes a significant contribution to the literature by demonstrating efficacy of a classroom-based teacher-implemented intervention with a heterogeneous group of students with ASD using both observed and reported measures. (PsycINFO Database Record

Classroom quality as a predictor of first graders' time in non-instructional activities and literacy achievement.

This study investigated how quality of the classroom learning environment influenced first grade students' (n=533) time spent in two non-instructional classroom activities (off-task and in transition) and their subsequent literacy outcomes. Hierarchical linear modeling revealed that higher classroom quality was related to higher student performance in reading comprehension and expressive vocabulary. Further, classroom quality predicted the amount of time students spent off-task and in transitions in the classroom, with slopes of change across the year particularly impacted. Mediation effects were detected in the case of expressive vocabulary such that the influence of classroom quality on students' achievement operated through students' time spent in these non-instructional activities. Results highlight the importance of overall classroom quality to how students navigate the classroom environment during learning opportunities, with subsequent literacy achievement impacted. Implications for policy and educational practices are discussed.

Reciprocal Effects of Self-Regulation, Semantic Knowledge, and Reading Comprehension in Early Elementary School.

Many assume that cognitive and linguistic processes, such as semantic knowledge (SK) and self-regulation (SR), subserve learned skills like reading. However, complex models of interacting and bootstrapping effects of SK, SR, instruction, and reading hypothesize reciprocal effects. Testing this "lattice" model with children (n = 852) followed from first to second grade (5.9-10.4 years of age) revealed reciprocal effects for reading and SR, and reading and SK, but not SR and SK. More effective literacy instruction reduced reading stability over time. Findings elucidate the synergistic and reciprocal effects of learning to read on other important linguistic, self-regulatory, and cognitive processes; the value of using complex models of development to inform intervention design; and how learned skills may influence development during middle childhood.

Evaluation of Classroom Active Engagement in Elementary Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder.

This study evaluated the classroom measure of active engagement (CMAE), an observational tool designed to measure active engagement in students with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Participants included 196 students with ASD and their educators (n = 126) who were video-recorded at the beginning of the school year. Findings documented limited active engagement overall, with students spending less than half of the observation well-regulated, productive, or independent and infrequently directing eye gaze and communicating. Confirmatory factor analysis indicated that the structure of the CMAE was represented by a 5-factor model. These findings underscore the need for improved active engagement in students with ASD and show promise for a tool to measure behaviors associated with positive educational outcomes in students with ASD.