Cost analysis of re-exploration for bleeding after coronary artery bypass graft surgery.

BACKGROUND: Re-exploration for bleeding after cardiac surgery is an indicator of substantial haemorrhage and is associated with increased hospital resource utilization. This study aimed to analyse the costs of re-exploration and estimate the costs of haemostatic prophylaxis. METHODS: A total of 4232 patients underwent isolated, first-time, coronary artery bypass graft (CABG) surgery during 2005-8. Each patient re-explored for bleeding (n=127) was matched with two controls not requiring re-exploration (n=254). Cost analysis was based on resource utilization from completion of CABG until discharge. A mean cost per patient for re-exploration was calculated. Based on this, the net cost of prophylactic treatment with haemostatic drugs for preventing re-exploration was calculated. RESULTS: Patients undergoing re-exploration had higher exposure to clopidogrel before operation, prolonged stays in the intensive care unit, and more blood transfusions than controls. The mean incremental cost for re-exploration was €6290 [95% confidence interval (CI) €3408-€9173] per patient, of which 48% [€3001 (95% CI €249-€2147)] was due to prolonged stay, 31% [€1928 (95% CI €1710-€2147)] to the cost of surgery/anaesthesia, 20% [€1261 (95% CI €1145-€1378)] to the increased number of blood transfusions, and <2% [€100 (95% CI €39-€161)] to the cost of haemostatic drugs. A cost model, at an estimated 50% efficacy for recombinant activated clotting factor VIIa and a 50% expected risk for re-exploration without prophylaxis, demonstrated that to be cost neutral, prophylaxis of four patients needed to result in one avoided re-exploration. CONCLUSIONS: The resource utilization costs were substantially higher in patients requiring re-exploration for bleeding. From a strict cost-effectiveness perspective, clinical interventions to prevent haemorrhage might be underutilized.

Temporal trends in non-small cell lung cancer survival in Sweden.

We modeled temporal trends in the 1- and 5-year survival of 32 499 patients with adenocarcinoma and squamous cell carcinoma of the lung in the Swedish Cancer Register between 1961 and 2000. The 1-year relative survival for adenocarcinoma improved from 37% for patients diagnosed 1961-1965 to 45% for those diagnosed 1996-2000 and from 39 to 45% for squamous cell carcinoma. The adjusted excess mortality ratios for the period 1996-2000 compared with 1961-1965 were 0.80 for adenocarcinoma and 0.81 for squamous cell carcinoma. Thus, a previous report in a Dutch study of a relatively worsening prognosis for adenocarcinoma over time could not be confirmed.

FRISC score for selection of patients for an early invasive treatment strategy in unstable coronary artery disease.

OBJECTIVE: To develop a scoring system for risk stratification and evaluation of the effect of an early invasive strategy for treatment of unstable coronary artery disease (CAD). DESIGN: Retrospective analysis of a randomised study (FRISC II; fast revascularisation in instability in coronary disease). SETTING: 58 Scandinavian hospitals. PATIENTS: 2457 patients with unstable CAD from the FRISC II study. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: One year rates of mortality and death/myocardial infarction (MI). METHODS: Patients were randomly assigned to an early invasive or a non-invasive strategy. From the non-invasive cohort independent variables of death or death/MI were identified. RESULTS: Seven factors, age > 70 years, male sex, diabetes, previous MI, ST depression, and increased concentrations of troponins and markers of inflammation (interleukin 6 or C reactive protein), were associated with an independent increased risk for death or death/MI. In patients with > or = 5 of these factors the invasive strategy reduced mortality from 15.4% (20 of 130) to 5.2% (7 of 134) (risk ratio (RR) 0.34, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.15 to 0.78, p = 0.006). Death/MI was also reduced in patients with 3-4 factors from 15.7% (80 of 511) to 10.8% (58 of 538) (RR 0.69, 95% CI 0.50 to 0.94, p = 0.02). Neither death nor death/MI was reduced in patients with 0-2 risk factors. CONCLUSION: In unstable CAD, this scoring system based on factors independently associated with an adverse outcome can be used shortly after admission to the hospital for risk stratification and for selection of patients to an early invasive treatment strategy.

Increased risk of heart failure as a consequence of perioperative myocardial injury after coronary artery bypass grafting.

OBJECTIVE: To analyse the relation between perioperative myocardial injury (PMI) and the risk of subsequent heart failure after coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG). DESIGN AND SETTING: Clinical data were documented prospectively in all patients and stored in a computer. All hospital readmissions were identified and the registered primary diagnoses were analysed. Survival information on all patients was obtained by use of combined registers. The study was carried out at the cardiac surgical referral centre of University Hospital, Uppsala, Sweden. PATIENTS: 7493 patients discharged alive after primary CABG between 1987 and 1996 were followed up until the first hospital readmission for heart failure, death, or 31 December 1996 was reached. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Hospital readmission for heart failure or late mortality. RESULTS: Of the patients studied 576 (7.7%) were readmitted for heart failure. Actuarial freedom from readmission for heart failure after four years was 93%, and after seven years, 89%. Of the 576 patients, 114 (20%) had had PMI, which increased the risk of heart failure independently (hazard ratio (HR) 2.3, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.8 to 2.8). Increased age, female sex, diabetes, previous myocardial infarction, dyspnoea, preoperative atrial fibrillation, left ventricular dysfunction, and triple vessel disease were independent risk factors for heart failure. The use of an internal mammary artery decreased the risk. PMI implied increased mortality (HR 1.4, 95% CI 1.1 to 1.8). Late mortality was greatly increased in patients readmitted for heart failure. CONCLUSION: PMI increased the risk of heart failure and late death after CABG, and heart failure had a notable adverse effect on late survival.

Management and outcome of patients with established coronary artery disease: the Euro Heart Survey on coronary revascularization.

AIMS: The purpose of the Euro Heart Survey Programme of the European Society of Cardiology is to evaluate to which extent clinical practice endorses existing guidelines as well as to identify differences in population profiles, patient management, and outcome across Europe. The current survey focuses on the invasive diagnosis and treatment of patients with established coronary artery disease (CAD). METHODS AND RESULTS: Between November 2001 and March 2002, 7769 consecutive patients undergoing invasive evaluation at 130 hospitals (31 countries) were screened for the presence of one or more coronary stenosis >50% in diameter. Patient demographics and comorbidity, clinical presentation, invasive parameters, treatment options, and procedural techniques were prospectively entered in an electronic database (550 variables+29 per diseased coronary segment). Major adverse cardiac events (MACE) were evaluated at 30 days and 1 year. Out of 5619 patients with angiographically proven coronary stenosis (72% of screened population), 53% presented with stable angina while ST elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) was the indication for coronary angiography in 16% and non-ST segment elevation myocardial infarction or unstable angina in 30%. Only medical therapy was continued in 21%, whereas mechanical revascularization was performed in the remainder [percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) in 58% and coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG) in 21%]. Patients referred for PCI were younger, were more active, had a lower risk profile, and had less comorbid conditions. CABG was performed mostly in patients with left main lesions (21%), two- (25%), or three-vessel disease (67%) with 4.1 diseased segments, on average. Single-vessel PCI was performed in 82% of patients with either single- (45%), two- (33%), or three-vessel disease (21%). Stents were used in 75% of attempted lesions, with a large variation between sites. Direct PCI for STEMI was performed in 410 cases, representing 7% of the entire workload in the participating catheterization laboratories. Time delay was within 90 min in 76% of direct PCI cases. In keeping with the recommendations of practice guidelines, the survey identified under-use of adjunctive medication (GP IIb/IIIa receptor blockers, statins, and angiotensin-converting enzyme-inhibitors). Mortality rates at 30 days and 1 year were low in all subgroups. MACE primarily consisted of repeat PCI (12%). CONCLUSION: The current Euro Heart Survey on coronary revascularization was performed in the era of bare metal stenting and provides a global European picture of the invasive approach to patients with CAD. These data will serve as a benchmark for the future evaluation of the impact of drug-eluting stents on the practice of interventional cardiology and bypass surgery.

Effect of delays on prognosis in patients with non-small cell lung cancer.

BACKGROUND: The effect of delay on survival in lung cancer remains uncertain. It is suggested that prompt management of non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) can influence prognosis. This study was undertaken to examine the relation between delay and prognosis in patients with NSCLC and to investigate the delay time from first symptom and from first hospital visit to start of treatment. METHODS: Two types of delay (symptom to treatment delay and hospital delay) were investigated in 466 patients treated for NSCLC at two institutions in central Sweden. Delays in relation to clinical characteristics were compared and the effects of delay times and other relevant factors on survival were assessed in multivariate analyses. RESULTS: Thirty five per cent of patients received treatment within 4 weeks of the first hospital visit and 52% within 6 weeks. Median symptom to treatment delay was 4.6 months and median hospital delay 1.6 months. Older age, advanced tumour stage, and non-surgical treatment were independently related to poor survival. Both prolonged hospital delay and symptom to treatment delay provided additional information when considered separately. In a final multivariate model only increased symptom to treatment delay gave significant information of a better prognosis. There was an association between a short delay and a poor prognosis which was most pronounced in patients with advanced disease. CONCLUSION: When considering the whole study population and all stages of tumour together, shorter delay was associated with a poorer prognosis. This is likely to reflect the fact that patients with severe signs and symptoms receive prompt treatment. These findings indicate that the waiting time for treatment in patients with NSCLC is longer than recommended.

Optimal timing of aortic valve replacement for aortic stenosis--are we operating late?

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the adherence to current guidelines for surgery in patients with aortic valve stenosis. DESIGN: From 1 January 1997 to 31 May 1999, 99 patients were accepted for aortic valve surgery with preserved left ventricular function and normal coronary angiogram. On admission for operation, 20 patients were evaluated regarding symptoms, exercise capacity, and left ventricular morphology and function. RESULTS: There were 14 men and 6 women, mean age 64.3 years. Years from symptom onset varied from 2.1 to 3.2. Dyspnoea was the most common limiting symptom. Thirty per cent of the patients were classified as NYHA IIIB. Physical capacity was reduced to 79% of the expected. Left ventricular hypertrophy was present in 14/20 patients. Left ventricular systolic function was reduced with mean ejection fraction of 0.46. Diastolic dysfunction (E/A ratio <1) was present in 12 patients. CONCLUSION: Many patients accepted for aortic valve replacement due to aortic stenosis show advanced disease and are referred for surgery later in the disease process than is recommended in the current guidelines.

Quality of life following lung cancer surgery.

BACKGROUND: Patients with non-small cell bronchogenic carcinoma have a limited survival. Quality of life (QoL) is therefore an issue of importance in this group of patients. The aim of the present study was to evaluate QoL in lung cancer patients after open surgery. METHODS: During a 4 year period (1997-2000) 194 patients with primary bronchogenic carcinoma of the lung underwent surgery at the Department of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery in Uppsala, Sweden; 132 patients were alive on 1 April 2001. These patients received the Short Form-36 (SF-36) health questionnaire, Hospital Anxiety and Depression (HAD) scale, and special questions related to pulmonary symptoms (response rate 85%). Patients who underwent coronary bypass surgery (CABG) served as a comparison group (response rate 91%). Corresponding estimates of QoL in healthy controls were obtained from the SF-36 manual for the Swedish population. RESULTS: Lung cancer patients differed from CABG patients in only one subgroup of the SF-36 (role physical), but had poorer QoL than healthy controls. No difference in anxiety was found between the lung cancer patients and the CABG patients, but the latter were more likely to suffer from depression (5.0% v 3.0%). Current smokers scored lower in the mental health dimension assessment. CONCLUSION: Lung cancer patients who undergo open traditional surgical resection have a QoL comparable to that of CABG patients. Lung cancer patients have poorer physical function because of reduced pulmonary function, but show no sign of increased anxiety or depression. Those who continued to smoke after surgery had impaired mental health.

Benefits of extended treatment with dalteparin in patients with unstable coronary artery disease eligible for revascularization.

AIMS: The FRISC II trial demonstrated that, for patients with unstable coronary artery disease, an early invasive strategy following acute treatment with dalteparin and aspirin, was superior to a more conservative approach. We evaluated whether it is beneficial to extend treatment with dalteparin to patients eligible for revascularization but for whom these procedures are performed after the initial hospital stay. METHODS AND RESULTS: As a subanalysis of FRISC II, the efficacy and clinical safety of extended dalteparin treatment (5000 or 7500 IU.12h(-1) to day 90) compared with placebo was assessed in 1601 patients randomized to a non-invasive group who underwent revascularization only when necessary because of recurring symptoms, (re)infarction, or severe ischaemia. By day 90, 440 patients had undergone revascularization: 267 of these procedures occurred during the double-blind period. All patients initially received acute treatment (5-7 days from day 1) with dalteparin (120 IU/kg(-1) 12h(-1)). The incidence of death and/or myocardial infarction was monitored until revascularization or day 45 and until revascularization or day 90. There was a significant difference in the estimated probability of death and/or myocardial infarction until revascularization or day 90 in favour of dalteparin (log-rank test, P=0.0415) and there was a significant reduction in death and/or myocardial infarction in favour of extended dalteparin treatment at day 45, with a 57% relative risk reduction (P=0.0004). At day 90 the relative risk reduction was 29%. The safety profile of extended dalteparin treatment was similar to that of acute usage. CONCLUSION: Extended dalteparin treatment for up to 45 days is effective and safe as a bridging therapy for patients with unstable coronary artery disease awaiting revascularization.

Impact of perioperative myocardial injury on early and long-term outcome after coronary artery bypass grafting.

AIMS: To establish the influence of perioperative myocardial injury on short- and long-term survival after coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG). METHODS AND RESULTS: The correlation of postoperative serum aspartate aminotransferase and creatine kinase MB to early cardiac-related death and to late survival was evaluated in 4911 patients who underwent CABG consecutively during a 6-year period. There were 93 early deaths (1.9%), 73 of them cardiac-related (1.5% of 4911). After a mean follow-up of 5 years, 409 additional deaths (8.5% of 4818) had occurred. Elevated enzyme levels on day 1 postoperatively highly increased the risk of early cardiac death (serum aspartate aminotransferase >or=2.35 microkat.l(-1): odds ratio 9.2; serum creatine kinase MB >or=61 microg.l(-1): odds ratio 6.0), and increased the risk of late death by approximately 50% (serum aspartate aminotransferase >or=2.35 microkat.l(-1): relative hazard 1.5; serum creatine kinase MB >or=61 microg.l(-1): relative hazard 1.4). This increased risk of death was independent of other risk factors and remained constant over time. CONCLUSIONS: Enzyme elevation after CABG implied an increased risk of both early and late death. The long-term effect persisted many years after surgery.

Outcome after lung cancer surgery. Factors predicting early mortality and major morbidity.

OBJECTIVE: This study was undertaken to assess mortality, complications and major morbidity during the first 30 days after lung cancer surgery and to estimate the significance of presurgical risk factors. METHODS: The study was based on all patients referred for surgery for primary lung cancer from 1 January 1987 to 1 September 1999. There were in total 616 patients with primary lung cancer. Three-hundred and ninety-four were men and 222 women. Postoperative events studied were divided into major and minor complications or death during the first 30 days after surgery. The significance of risk factors for an adverse outcome (defined as death or major complication in the first 30 days postoperatively) was assessed by uni- and multivariate logistic regression analyses. RESULTS: During the study period an increasing number of women and of patients older than 70 years underwent surgery. Overall 30-day mortality was 2.9, 0.6% after single lobectomy and 5.7% after pneumonectomy. Major complications occurred in 54 patients (8.8%). Fifty-eight patients (9.5%) had an adverse outcome during the first 30 days. Male gender, smoker, FEV(1)< or =70% of expected value, squamous cell carcinoma and pneumonectomy were risk factors predicting adverse outcome in the univariate model. Pneumonectomy and FEV(1)< or =70%, were the only independently significant factors for adverse outcome. Only pneumonectomy was independently associated with an increased risk for early death. CONCLUSION: Our results show low mortality and morbidity after lung cancer surgery. However, patients with reduced lung capacity and those undergoing pneumonectomy should be treated with great care, as they run a considerable risk of major complications or death during the first 30 days postoperatively. Older age (>70 years) does not appear to be a contraindication to lung cancer surgery, but patients in this group should undergo careful preoperative evaluation.

Trends in lung cancer incidence in Sweden with special reference to period and birth cohorts.

OBJECTIVE: Sweden has one of the largest population-based cancer registers in the world that provides an opportunity to examine the trend of lung cancer incidence during a 35-year period. The primary aim of the present study was to estimate the effects of birth cohort, year of diagnosis (period), and age on the time trends of lung cancer incidence rates, and to analyze the gender-specific incidence of different histopathological types of lung cancer. RESULTS: Among men the age-standardized incidence rate increased steadily up to 1982, when a peak of 49 cases per 100,000 person-years was reached. Among women the incidence rate was lower and showed a monotonic increase throughout the observation period. The fastest rate of increase was noted among the youngest women. In women, but not in men, there was a steady increase in risk with each successive birth cohort. For both sexes there were large changes in the histopathological distributions of cases. The most notable was a major increase in adenocarcinomas. CONCLUSIONS: The overall age-adjusted incidence rate of lung cancer in Sweden has stabilized in men during the past two decades while rates are still increasing in women. In view of the continued high prevalence of smoking among young women, a future definite increase in the overall number of lung cancer cases in women can be expected.

Routes and sources of Staphylococcus aureus transmitted to the surgical wound during cardiothoracic surgery: possibility of preventing wound contamination by use of special scrub suits.

OBJECTIVES: To trace the routes of transmission and sources of Staphylococcus aureus found in the surgical wound during cardiothoracic surgery and to investigate the possibility of reducing wound contamination, with regard to total counts of bacteria and S. aureus, by wearing special scrub suits. METHODS: A total of 65 elective operations for coronary artery bypass graft with or without concomitant valve replacement were investigated. All staff present in the operating room wore conventional scrub suits during 33 operations and special scrub suits during 32 operations. Bacteriological samples were taken from the hands of the scrubbed team after surgical scrub but before putting on sterile gowns and gloves and from the patients' skin (incisional area of sternum and vein harvesting area of legs) after preoperative skin preparation with chlorhexidine gluconate. Air samples were taken during operations. Bacteriological samples also were taken from the subcutaneous walls of the surgical wound just before closing the wound. Total counts of bacteria on sternal skin and wound walls (colony-forming units [CFUs]/cm2) were calculated, as well as total counts of bacteria in the air (CFUs/m3). Strains of S. aureus recovered from the different sampling sites were compared by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE). RESULTS: Special scrub suits significantly reduced total counts of bacteria in air compared to conventional scrub suits (P=.002). The number of air samples in which S. aureus was found was significantly reduced by special scrub suits compared with conventional scrub suits (P=.016; relative risk, 4.4; 95% confidence interval [CI95], 1.3-14.91). By use of PFGE, it was possible to identify two cases of possible airborne transmission of S. aureus when wearing conventional scrub suits, whereas no case was found when wearing special scrub suits. When exposed to airborne S. aureus, the concomitant sternal carriage of S. aureus was a risk factor for having S. aureus in the wound. CONCLUSIONS: Use of tightly woven special scrub suits reduces the dispersal of total counts of bacteria and of S. aureus from staff in the operating room, thus possibly reducing the risk of airborne contamination of surgical wounds. The importance of careful preoperative disinfection of the patient's skin should be stressed.

Is early invasive treatment of unstable coronary artery disease equally effective for both women and men? FRISC II Study Group Investigators.

BACKGROUND: The Fragmin and fast Revascularization during InStability in Coronary artery disease (FRISC II) trial compared the effectiveness of an early invasive versus a noninvasive strategy in terms of the incidence of death and myocardial infarction (MI) in patients with unstable coronary artery disease (CAD). OBJECTIVES: In this subanalysis, we sought to evaluate gender differences in the effect of these different strategies. METHODS: The patients (749 women and 1,708 men) were randomized to early invasive or noninvasive strategies. Coronary angiography was performed within the first 7 days in 96% and 10% of the invasive and noninvasive groups, respectively, and revascularization was performed within the first 10 days in 71% and 9% of the invasive and noninvasive groups, respectively. RESULTS: Women presenting with unstable CAD were older, but fewer had previous infarctions, left ventricular dysfunction and elevated troponin T levels. Women had fewer angiographic changes. There was no difference in MI or death at 12 months among women in the invasive and noninvasive groups (12.4% vs. 10.5%, respectively), in contrast to the favorable effect in the invasively treated group of men (9.6% vs. 15.8%, p < 0.001). In an interaction analysis, there was a different effect of the early invasive strategy for the two genders (p = 0.008). CONCLUSIONS: Women with symptoms and/or signs of unstable CAD are older, but still have less severe CAD and a better prognosis compared with men. In contrast to its beneficial effect in men, an early invasive strategy did not reduce the risk of future events among women. Further research is warranted to identify the most appropriate treatment strategy in women with unstable CAD.

Source and route of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus epidermidis transmitted to the surgical wound during cardio-thoracic surgery. Possibility of preventing wound contamination by use of special scrub suits.

The objective of this study was to trace the source and route of transmission of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus epidermidis (MRSE) in the surgical wound during cardio-thoracic surgery, and to investigate the possibility of reducing wound contamination by wearing special scrub suits. In total 65 elective operations for coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG) with or without concomitant valve replacement were investigated. All staff present in the operating room wore conventional scrub suits during 33 operations and special scrub suits during 32 operations. Samples were taken from the hands of the scrubbed team after surgical scrub but before putting on sterile gowns and gloves, and from patients' skin (incisional area of sternum and vein harvesting area of legs) after preoperative skin preparation with chlorhexidine gluconate. Air samples were taken during operations. Samples were also taken from the wound just before closure. Total counts of bacteria on sternal skin and from the wound (cfu/cm2) were calculated as well as total counts of bacteria in the air (cfu/m3). Strains of MRSE recovered from the different sampling sites were compared by pulsed field gel electrophoresis (PFGE). It was found that wearing special scrub suits did not reduce the number of air-samples where MRSE was found compared with conventional scrub suits. The risk factor most strongly associated with MRSE in the wound at the end of the operation was preoperative carriage of MRSE on sternal skin; RR 2.42 [95% CI 1.43-4.10], P= 0.021. By use of PFGE, it was possible to identify the probable source for four MRSE isolates recovered from the wound. In three cases the source was the patients own skin. Finding MRSE in air-samples, or on the hands of the scrubbed team, were not risk factors for the recovery of MRSE in the wound at the end of operation. In conclusion, with a total bacterial air count around 20 cfu/m3 and a low proportion of MRSE, the reduction of total air counts by use of tightly woven special scrub suits did not reduce air counts of MRSE or wound contamination with MRSE. The patients' sternal skin was the main source for wound contamination with MRSE

Outcome at 1 year after an invasive compared with a non-invasive strategy in unstable coronary-artery disease: the FRISC II invasive randomised trial. FRISC II Investigators. Fast Revascularisation during Instability in Coronary artery disease.

BACKGROUND: The Fragmin and Fast Revascularisation during Instability in Coronary artery disease II trial (FRISC II) compared an early invasive with an early non-invasive strategy in unstable coronary-artery disease. We report outcome at 1 year. METHODS: 2457 patients were randomly assigned invasive or non-invasive treatment and 3 months of dalteparin or placebo. Complete information at 1 year was available for 1222 in the invasive group and 1234 in the non-invasive group. Analyses were by intention to treat. FINDINGS: Revascularisation was done within the first 10 days in 71% of the invasive group and 9% of the non-invasive group and within the first year in 78% and 43%. During the first year, 27 (2.2%) patients in the invasive group and 48 (3.9%) in the non-invasive group died (risk ratio 0.57 [95% CI 0.36-0.90], p=0.016). 105 (8.6%) versus 143 (11.6%) had myocardial infarction (0.74 [0.59-0.94], p=0.015). The composite of death or myocardial infarction occurred in 127 (10.4%) versus 174 (14.1%) patients (0.74 [0.60-0.92], p=0.005). There were also reductions in readmission (451 [37%] vs 704 [57%]; 0.67 [0.62-0.72]), and revascularisation after the initial admission (92 [7.5%] vs 383 [31%]; 0.24 [0.20-0.30]). The results did not interact with the dalteparin/placebo allocation. INTERPRETATION: After 1 year in 100 patients, an invasive strategy saves 1.7 lives, prevents 2.0 non-fatal myocardial infarctions and 20 readmissions, and provides earlier and better symptom relief at the cost of 15 more patients with coronary-artery bypass grafting and 21 more with percutaneous transluminal angioplasty. Therefore, an invasive approach should be the preferred strategy in patients with unstable coronary-artery disease and signs of ischaemia on electrocardiography or raised levels of biochemical markers of myocardial damage.