Force measurement tools to explore cadherin mechanotransduction.

Cell-cell adhesions serve to mechanically couple cells, allowing for long-range transmission of forces across cells in development, disease, and homeostasis. Recent work has shown that such contacts also play a role in transducing mechanical cues into a wide variety of cellular behaviors important to tissue function. As such, understanding the mechanical regulation of cells through their adhesion molecules has become a point of intense focus. This review will highlight the existing and emerging technologies and models that allow for exploration of cadherin-based adhesions as sites of mechanotransduction.

Microfluidics embedded within extracellular matrix to define vascular architectures and pattern diffusive gradients.

Gradients of diffusive molecules within 3D extracellular matrix (ECM) are essential in guiding many processes such as development, angiogenesis, and cancer. The spatial distribution of factors that guide these processes is complex, dictated by the distribution and architecture of vasculature and presence of surrounding cells, which can serve as sources or sinks of factors. To generate temporally and spatially defined soluble gradients within a 3D cell culture environment, we developed an approach to patterning microfluidically ported microchannels that pass through a 3D ECM. Micromolded networks of sacrificial conduits ensconced within an ECM gel precursor solution are dissolved following ECM gelation to yield functional microfluidic channels. The dimensions and spatial layout of channels are readily dictated using photolithographic methods, and channels are connected to external flow via a gasket that also serves to house the 3D ECM. We demonstrated sustained spatial patterning of diffusive gradients dependent on the architecture of the microfluidic network, as well as the ability to independently populate cells in either the channels or surrounding ECM, enabling the study of 3D morphogenetic processes. To highlight the utility of this approach, we generated model vascular networks by lining the channels with endothelial cells and examined how channel architecture, through its effects on diffusion patterns, can guide the location and morphology of endothelial sprouting from the channels. We show that locations of strongest gradients define positions of angiogenic sprouting, suggesting a mechanism by which angiogenesis is regulated in vivo and a potential means to spatially defining vasculature in tissue engineering applications. This flexible 3D microfluidic approach should have utility in modeling simple tissues and will aid in the screening and identification of soluble factor conditions that drive morphogenetic events such as angiogenesis.

Biomimetic model to reconstitute angiogenic sprouting morphogenesis in vitro.

Angiogenesis is a complex morphogenetic process whereby endothelial cells from existing vessels invade as multicellular sprouts to form new vessels. Here, we have engineered a unique organotypic model of angiogenic sprouting and neovessel formation that originates from preformed artificial vessels fully encapsulated within a 3D extracellular matrix. Using this model, we screened the effects of angiogenic factors and identified two distinct cocktails that promoted robust multicellular endothelial sprouting. The angiogenic sprouts in our system exhibited hallmark structural features of in vivo angiogenesis, including directed invasion of leading cells that developed filopodia-like protrusions characteristic of tip cells, following stalk cells exhibiting apical-basal polarity, and lumens and branches connecting back to the parent vessels. Ultimately, sprouts bridged between preformed channels and formed perfusable neovessels. Using this model, we investigated the effects of angiogenic inhibitors on sprouting morphogenesis. Interestingly, the ability of VEGF receptor 2 inhibition to antagonize filopodia formation in tip cells was context-dependent, suggesting a mechanism by which vessels might be able to toggle between VEGF-dependent and VEGF-independent modes of angiogenesis. Like VEGF, sphingosine-1-phosphate also seemed to exert its proangiogenic effects by stimulating directional filopodial extension, whereas matrix metalloproteinase inhibitors prevented sprout extension but had no impact on filopodial formation. Together, these results demonstrate an in vitro 3D biomimetic model that reconstitutes the morphogenetic steps of angiogenic sprouting and highlight the potential utility of the model to elucidate the molecular mechanisms that coordinate the complex series of events involved in neovascularization.