How can gender considerations be better integrated into animal health emergency preparedness and response?

Global and national authorities have not historically approached animal health emergencies through a gendered lens. Yet these events almost certainly have gendered dimensions, such as differential engagement of women or men depending on their culturally accepted or assigned roles for animal care; risk of exposure to zoonoses; and access to emergency resources during response and recovery. Despite the role that gender seems to play with respect to animal health emergencies, little research has been conducted to better understand such dynamics, and little policy has been promulgated to address it in a way that optimizes response while ensuring equitable outcomes. This piece summarizes 3 key themes that emerged from a panel discussion on gender and animal health emergencies at the World Organisation for Animal Health Global Conference on Emergency Management in April 2023. These themes were differential gendered exposure to pathogens; a lack of equitable gender representation in animal health decision-making; and enhancement of pathways for recognizing gender in national and international actions in preparing for, detecting, and responding to animal health emergencies. Beyond increasing opportunities for women to engage in leadership, the animal health and veterinary communities will benefit from connecting practitioners with gender experts to develop more integrative approaches to emergency preparedness and management. Animal health professionals should also advocate for further research to elucidate gender-specific dynamics in human populations in the context of animal emergencies and the promulgation of evidence-based policies. Such transformative efforts will lead to better outcomes for all people who depend on and provide care for animals.

How To Deal with Toxic Amino Acids: the Bipartite AzlCD Complex Exports Histidine in Bacillus subtilis.

The Gram-positive model bacterium Bacillus subtilis can use several amino acids as sources of carbon and nitrogen. However, some amino acids inhibit the growth of this bacterium. This amino acid toxicity is often enhanced in strains lacking the second messenger cyclic dimeric adenosine 3',5'-monophosphate (c-di-AMP). We observed that the presence of histidine is also toxic for a B. subtilis strain that lacks all three c-di-AMP synthesizing enzymes. However, suppressor mutants emerged, and whole-genome sequencing revealed mutations in the azlB gene that encode the repressor of the azl operon. This operon encodes an exporter and an importer for branched-chain amino acids. The suppressor mutations result in an overexpression of the azl operon. Deletion of the azlCD genes encoding the branched-chain amino acid exporter restored the toxicity of histidine, indicating that this exporter is required for histidine export and for resistance to otherwise toxic levels of the amino acid. The higher abundance of the amino acid exporter AzlCD increased the extracellular concentration of histidine, thus confirming the new function of AzlCD as a histidine exporter. Unexpectedly, the AzlB-mediated repression of the operon remains active even in the presence of amino acids, suggesting that the expression of the azl operon requires the mutational inactivation of AzlB. IMPORTANCE Amino acids are building blocks for protein biosynthesis in each living cell. However, due to their reactivity and the similarity between several amino acids, they may also be involved in harmful reactions or in noncognate interactions and thus may be toxic. Bacillus subtilis can deal with otherwise toxic histidine by overexpressing the bipartite amino acid exporter AzlCD. Although encoded in an operon that also contains a gene for an amino acid importer, the corresponding genes are not expressed, irrespective of the availability of amino acids in the medium. This suggests that the azl operon is a last resort by which to deal with histidine stress that can be expressed due to the mutational inactivation of the cognate repressor AzlB.

Seroprevalence of Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae in sows fifteen years after implementation of a control programme for enzootic pneumonia in Switzerland.

Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae is the etiological agent of enzootic pneumonia (EP), an economically important chronic respiratory disease in pigs. M. hyopneumoniae impacts the mucociliary clearance system by disrupting the cilia and modulates the immune response, resulting in intermittent dry non-productive cough. For progressive control of EP in Switzerland, a corresponding programme was fully implemented in 2004. It is based on total depopulation strategies of affected fattening farms as well as partial depopulation in breeding farms. Surveillance of EP status in Switzerland is mainly based on real-time PCR of nasal swabs from coughing animals or suspicious lungs and thereby sporadic cases are still observed every year. In order to obtain information on the seroprevalence, serum samples of 5021 sows from 968 farms collected in 2018 at eight different slaughterhouses were analyzed for the presence of M. hyopneumoniae-specific antibodies using a commercial ELISA kit. The overall seroprevalence was low with 0.98% of sows testing positive and these seropositive animals could be allocated to 3.92% of farms tested. Most seropositive farms presented weakly positive singleton reactors and only one farm showed several strongly seropositive animals. In conclusion, the serological status mirrors the successful progressive control of M. hyopneumoniae in the Swiss domestic pig population over the years. The current study underlines the added value of serological testing in the surveillance of EP in a country with low prevalence and confirms the sustained benefit of strategic control programmes.

Does having a cat in your house increase your risk of catching COVID-19?

Due to the zoonotic origin of SARS-Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), the potential for its transmission from humans back to animals and the possibility that it might establish ongoing infection pathways in other animal species has been discussed. Cats are highly susceptible to SARS-CoV-2 and were shown experimentally to transmit the virus to other cats. Infection of cats has been widely reported. Domestic cats in COVID-19-positive households could therefore be a part of a human to animal to human transmission pathway. Here, we report the results of a qualitative risk assessment focusing on the potential of cat to human transmission in such settings. The assessment was based on evidence available by October 2021. After the introduction of SARS-CoV-2 to a household by a human, cats may become infected and infected cats may pose an additional infection risk for other members of the household. In order to assess this additional risk qualitatively, expert opinion was elicited within the framework of a modified Delphi procedure. The conclusion was that the additional risk of infection of an additional person in a household associated with keeping a domestic cat is very low to negligible, depending on the intensity of cat-to-human interactions. The separation of cats from humans suffering from SARS-CoV-2 infection should contribute to preventing further transmission.

Evaluating Integrated Surveillance for Antimicrobial Use and Resistance in England: A Qualitative Study.

Integrated surveillance systems for antimicrobial use (AMU) and antimicrobial resistance (AMR) require regular evaluation to ensure the effectiveness and efficiency of the system. An important step in the evaluation is to choose an appropriate tool for the purpose of the evaluation. The "Integrated Surveillance System Evaluation" (ISSE) framework is a conceptual framework that was developed to evaluate One Health (OH) integration in surveillance system for AMU/AMR. This study aimed to evaluate the performance and value of integrated surveillance system for AMU/AMR in England by applying the ISSE framework, which was used to develop data collection protocols and define the study design. A qualitative study using semi-structured interviews was conducted to collect the data and analyse it thematically. Eighteen stakeholders from human, animal, food and environment sectors that are involved in AMU/AMR surveillance were interviewed. Four main themes emerged from the analysis: (1) Cross-sectoral integration in the surveillance system for AMU/AMR; (2) Production of OH outputs and outcomes; (3) Drivers and barriers to cross-sectoral collaboration; and 4) Need for more cross-sectoral collaboration. The findings showed that there were links between integrated surveillance information, decision making and interventions. However, there were only few OH examples, such as the UK AMR contingency plan, where the potential of cross-sectoral collaboration was fully exploited. A lot of the benefits described were related to the generation of information and increase in knowledge and understanding without links to how the information generated was used. While these intangible benefits have a value on their own, being able to link surveillance information and mitigation measures would help to enhance the value of integrated surveillance. In terms of improvement, the main areas identified were the development of more harmonised methods for data collection and analysis, provision of resources dedicated to cross-sectoral collaboration, improved coordination, and collection of surveillance data from the environment and from companion animals. By identifying links between OH surveillance information produced and various outputs and outcomes; this study helped to understand the wider benefits of integrated surveillance for AMU/AMR in England and provided insights on how the system could be improved and efficiency increased.

Income compensation options and partial budget analysis following a reduction of antimicrobial sales at the veterinary practice level.

Over the years, the excessive consumption of antimicrobials (AM) by animals and humans has become a major concern at the global level, and several studies have highlighted the link between antimicrobial use (AMU) and antimicrobial resistance. Previous studies showed that, in Switzerland, every calf in the fattening process received in average seven days of AM treatment, and mainly oral group treatments. Therefore, policies to reduce the consumption of AM among veal calves should be implemented and promoted to decrease AM pressure on the microbiome. This study aimed to assess how a potential loss of income due to a reduction of AM prescriptions and sales in the Swiss veal calves sector could potentially be compensated. Partial budget models at the veterinary practice level were built to evaluate the effect on the net profit of veterinary practices, following four different national policy interventions that aim to reduce AM prescriptions for veal calves. The best-case scenarios resulted in a positive net profit. The scenarios assuming complete loss of profit from AM sales resulted in very low or negative net profit. Therefore, without financial support (e.g. through the government or other entities), veterinarians are likely to find it difficult to fully compensate the economic losses. At the practice level, income compensation mechanisms require a fundamental change of the business model. New model should be largely independent of pharmaceutical sales and should promote paid counselling on herd health management.

Evaluating the Integration of One Health in Surveillance Systems for Antimicrobial Use and Resistance: A Conceptual Framework.

It is now widely acknowledged that surveillance of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) must adopt a "One Health" (OH) approach to successfully address the significant threats this global public health issue poses to humans, animals, and the environment. While many protocols exist for the evaluation of surveillance, the specific aspect of the integration of a OH approach into surveillance systems for AMR and antimicrobial Use (AMU), suffers from a lack of common and accepted guidelines and metrics for its monitoring and evaluation functions. This article presents a conceptual framework to evaluate the integration of OH in surveillance systems for AMR and AMU, named the Integrated Surveillance System Evaluation framework (ISSE framework). The ISSE framework aims to assist stakeholders and researchers who design an overall evaluation plan to select the relevant evaluation questions and tools. The framework was developed in partnership with the Canadian Integrated Program for Antimicrobial Resistance Surveillance (CIPARS). It consists of five evaluation components, which consider the capacity of the system to: [1] integrate a OH approach, [2] produce OH information and expertise, [3] generate actionable knowledge, [4] influence decision-making, and [5] positively impact outcomes. For each component, a set of evaluation questions is defined, and links to other available evaluation tools are shown. The ISSE framework helps evaluators to systematically assess the different OH aspects of a surveillance system, to gain comprehensive information on the performance and value of these integrated efforts, and to use the evaluation results to refine and improve the surveillance of AMR and AMU globally.

Characterisation and mapping of the surveillance system for antimicrobial resistance and antimicrobial use in the United Kingdom.

BACKGROUND: Surveillance of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is an essential component of any strategy to mitigate AMR and needs regular evaluation to ensure its effectiveness. A first step for any evaluation is to describe the system and context. In this study, we aimed to characterise and map the surveillance system for AMR and antimicrobial use (AMU) in the United Kingdom (UK) using a One Health (OH) approach and to identify integration points in the system. METHODS: To describe the surveillance system for AMR/AMU, international guidelines for establishing surveillance systems for AMR and AMU were used. A review of the literature was conducted to collect information on the different parameters identified. RESULTS: Multiple data collection systems exist for AMU and AMR in humans, animals and food. Each sector is responsible for the planning, implementation, analysis and reporting of its own surveillance for AMR and AMU. Some cross-sectoral collaborative activities exist such as the UK AMR contingency plan and the publication of UK OH reports; there are opportunities for further integration such as the harmonisation of data analyses methods and interpretation across sectors and the publication of joint surveillance reports. CONCLUSION: This overview of key stakeholders, data collection streams, reporting, linkages within and across sectors and international monitoring forms an important basis for future evaluation of the UK AMR/AMU surveillance system from a OH perspective.

Using network analysis to identify seasonal patterns and key nodes for risk-based surveillance of pig diseases in Italy.

The description of the pattern of livestock movements between herds provides essential information for both improving risk-based surveillance and to understand the likely spread of infectious diseases. This study provides a description of the temporal pattern of pig movements recorded in Italy on a 4-year period (2013-2016). Data, provided by the National Livestock registry, were described by social network analysis and the application of a walk-trap algorithm for community detection. Our results show a highly populated community located in Northern Italy, which is the focal point of the Italian industrial pig production and as a general pattern an overall decline of medium and backyard farms and an increase in the number of large farms, in agreement with the trend observed by other EU pig-producing countries. A seasonal pattern of all the parameters evaluated, including the number of active nodes in both the intensive and smaller production systems, emerged: that is characterized by a higher number of movements in spring and autumn, linked with the breeding and production cycle as pigs moved from the growing to the finishing phase and with periods of increased slaughtering at Christmas and Easter. The same pattern was found when restricting the analysis to imported pig batches. Outbreaks occurring during these periods would have a greater impact on the spread of infectious diseases; therefore, targeted surveillance may be appropriate. Finally, potential super-spreader nodes have been identified and represent 0.47% of the total number of pig holdings (n = 477). Those nodes are present during the whole study period with a similar ranking in their potential of being super-spreaders. Most of them were in Northern Italy, but super-spreaders with high mean out-degree centrality were also located in other Regions. Seasonality, communities and super-spreaders should be considered when planning surveillance activity and when applying disease control strategies.

Monitoring of Farm-Level Antimicrobial Use to Guide Stewardship: Overview of Existing Systems and Analysis of Key Components and Processes.

The acknowledgment of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) as a major health challenge in humans, animals and plants, has led to increased efforts to reduce antimicrobial use (AMU). To better understand factors influencing AMR and implement and evaluate stewardship measures for reducing AMU, it is important to have sufficiently detailed information on the quantity of AMU, preferably at the level of the user (farmer, veterinarian) and/or prescriber or provider (veterinarian, feed mill). Recently, several countries have established or are developing systems for monitoring AMU in animals. The aim of this publication is to provide an overview of known systems for monitoring AMU at farm-level, with a descriptive analysis of their key components and processes. As of March 2020, 38 active farm-level AMU monitoring systems from 16 countries were identified. These systems differ in many ways, including which data are collected, the type of analyses conducted and their respective output. At the same time, they share key components (data collection, analysis, benchmarking, and reporting), resulting in similar challenges to be faced with similar decisions to be made. Suggestions are provided with respect to the different components and important aspects of various data types and methods are discussed. This overview should provide support for establishing or working with such a system and could lead to a better implementation of stewardship actions and a more uniform communication about and understanding of AMU data at farm-level. Harmonization of methods and processes could lead to an improved comparability of outcomes and less confusion when interpreting results across systems. However, it is important to note that the development of systems also depends on specific local needs, resources and aims.

Exposure Pathways to Antimicrobial Resistance at the Human-Animal Interface-A Qualitative Comparison of Swiss Expert and Consumer Opinions.

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is an emerging global health concern, affecting both the animal and the human population. Transmission pathways of AMR are therefore abundant and complex, and ways to prevent or reduce transmission to consumers must be identified. The overall goal of this study was to define the content of an intervention study aimed at reducing the transmission of AMR from animal sources to humans. To identify the most relevant pathways, Swiss experts and consumers were interviewed about their opinions on the risks of transmission of AMR. Opinions of experts and consumers were then qualitatively compared and the main gaps identified. The results revealed that Swiss consumers had several misconceptions regarding the sources and transmission of AMR, and that they in particular underestimated the importance of poultry meat and pets as a potential source of AMR. Furthermore, high uncertainty was noted in experts regarding the prevalence of AMR in pets and the potential of transmission to their owners. Consequently, awareness of AMR transmission pathways should be increased among consumers to overcome common misconceptions, which will help reduce the risk of transmission. Further research is needed to better understand the pets' potential to harbor and transmit AMR to their owners, and to identify most effective methods to increase risk awareness in consumers as well as intervention strategies promoting consumer behaviors to mitigate AMR transmissions at the human-animal interface.

To Sample or Not to Sample? An Analysis of the Need for Salmonella Sampling of Smaller Poultry Processors.

Within the European Union (EU), microbiological criteria (MC) sampling for Salmonella in poultry was introduced in 2005. In particular, processors had to meet a target of fewer than seven positive samples out of 50. However, processors producing small amounts of poultry meat did not have to sample if national authorities determined this was an acceptable risk. The U.K. Food Standards Agency (FSA) thus has a sampling regime based on throughput that allows smaller processors not to sample. In 2011, the limit of 7/50 was reduced to 5/50. Given the current uncertainty regarding U.K. trade relations with the EU, the U.K. FSA decided to conduct a new risk assessment of the risks of Salmonella produced by smaller processors, to determine whether sampling was now necessary. Current evidence suggests that an MC sampling regime in smaller slaughterhouses is not warranted from a national public health perspective. Because of the insensitivities of the MC sampling scheme, the introduction of MC sampling into smaller slaughterhouses would only be necessary if the suspected carcass prevalence was 15% or more. While our analysis is prone to uncertainty, we estimated that the carcass prevalence in smaller processors is below this. Thus, we recommended that the current sampling framework, allowing smaller processors not to sample, was still applicable.

Addressing Learning Needs on the Use of Metagenomics in Antimicrobial Resistance Surveillance.

One Health surveillance of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) depends on a harmonized method for detection of AMR. Metagenomics-based surveillance offers the possibility to compare resistomes within and between different target populations. Its potential to be embedded into policy in the future calls for a timely and integrated knowledge dissemination strategy. We developed a blended training (e-learning and a workshop) on the use of metagenomics in surveillance of pathogens and AMR. The objectives were to highlight the potential of metagenomics in the context of integrated surveillance, to demonstrate its applicability through hands-on training and to raise awareness to bias factors. The target participants included staff of competent authorities responsible for AMR monitoring and academic staff. The training was organized in modules covering the workflow, requirements, benefits and challenges of surveillance by metagenomics. The training had 41 participants. The face-to-face workshop was essential to understand the expectations of the participants about the transition to metagenomics-based surveillance. After revision of the e-learning, we released it as a Massive Open Online Course (MOOC), now available at https://www.coursera.org/learn/metagenomics. This course has run in more than 20 sessions, with more than 3,000 learners enrolled, from more than 120 countries. Blended learning and MOOCs are useful tools to deliver knowledge globally and across disciplines. The released MOOC can be a reference knowledge source for international players in the application of metagenomics in surveillance.

Effectiveness of alternative measures to reduce antimicrobial usage in pig production in four European countries.

BACKGROUND: The reduction of antimicrobial usage (AMU) is in the focus in modern pig production. The objective of this study was to assess the effectiveness of alternatives to reduce AMU at herd level. In a prospective study, 68 farrow-to-finish pig herds located in Belgium, France, Germany and Sweden were recruited on a voluntary basis to implement tailor-made intervention plans to reduce their AMU. Alternative measures included improvement of biosecurity (n = 29 herds), vaccination (n = 30), changes of feeding schemes or drinking water quality (n = 45), improved pig health and welfare care (n = 21) as well as changes in stable climate and zootechnical measures (n = 14). Herds were followed for 1 year after implementation of measures. Annual antimicrobial expenditures or treatment records, as well as disease incidence scores were collected and compared to those of the year before intervention. AMU was measured as the treatment incidence and calculated by age category, antimicrobial class and administration route. RESULTS: Compliance with the intervention plans was high (median 93%). AMU was significantly reduced following the implementation of alternative measures: in the median herd of the four countries, pigs were treated before intervention 25% of their expected lifespan (200 days from birth to slaughter) and after intervention 16%. AMU of suckling and weaned pigs were significantly reduced by 37 and 54%, respectively. The usage of polymyxins and tetracyclines was significantly reduced by 69 and 49%, respectively. AMU via feed and water, as well as parenteral AMU were significantly reduced by 46 and 36%, respectively. Herds with a higher AMU level before intervention achieved a bigger reduction. The majority of disease incidence were similar before and after intervention, with a few exceptions of disorders related to the gastro-intestinal tract in suckling pigs (decreased) and in breeding pigs (increased). CONCLUSION: Following tailor-made implementation of alternative measures, a substantial reduction of AMU in pig production was achievable without jeopardizing animal health. The AMU reduction in the youngest age categories (suckling and weaned pigs) and the reduction of group treatments via feed and water was in line with the recent European Guidelines on the prudent use of antimicrobials in veterinary medicine.

Overview of Evidence of Antimicrobial Use and Antimicrobial Resistance in the Food Chain.

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a global health problem. Bacteria carrying resistance genes can be transmitted between humans, animals and the environment. There are concerns that the widespread use of antimicrobials in the food chain constitutes an important source of AMR in humans, but the extent of this transmission is not well understood. The aim of this review is to examine published evidence on the links between antimicrobial use (AMU) in the food chain and AMR in people and animals. The evidence showed a link between AMU in animals and the occurrence of resistance in these animals. However, evidence of the benefits of a reduction in AMU in animals on the prevalence of resistant bacteria in humans is scarce. The presence of resistant bacteria is documented in the human food supply chain, which presents a potential exposure route and risk to public health. Microbial genome sequencing has enabled the establishment of some links between the presence of resistant bacteria in humans and animals but, for some antimicrobials, no link could be established. Research and monitoring of AMU and AMR in an integrated manner is essential for a better understanding of the biology and the dynamics of antimicrobial resistance.

Assessing the Adoption of Recommended Standards, Novel Approaches, and Best Practices for Animal Health Surveillance by Decision Makers in Europe.

Animal health surveillance is an important tool for disease mitigation and helps to promote animal health and welfare, protect human health, support efficient animal production, and enable trade. This study aimed to assess adoption of recommended standards and best practice for surveillance (including risk-based approaches) in Europe. It included scoping interviews with surveillance experts in Denmark, the Netherlands, Norway, and Switzerland to gather information on knowledge acquisition, decisions and implementation of surveillance, and perceptions. This was followed by an online survey among animal health and food safety surveillance users in EU, EEA, and Schengen countries. A total of 166 responses were collected from 27 countries; 111 were eligible for analysis. A strong preference for legislation and established standards was observed, with peer-reviewed publications, conferences, symposia, and workshops to be major sources of information. The majority of respondents indicated a need for international evaluation for surveillance and implied that considerations of cost-effectiveness were essential when making a decision to adopt new surveillance standards. However, most of the respondents did not use a formal evaluation to inform the adoption of new standards or only conducted a descriptive assessment before their implementation or adaptation. Only a few respondents reported a quantitative economic evaluation despite economic efficiency being considered as a highly relevant criterion for surveillance implementation. Constraints mentioned in the adoption of new surveillance standards included insufficient time, financial and human resources, and lack of competency. Researchers aiming to achieve impact by their surveillance work are advised to consider ways of influencing binding standards and to disseminate their work pro-actively using varied channels of engagement tailored to relevant target audiences and their needs. Generally, a more formal linkage between surveillance information and disease mitigation decisions-for example, by using systematic evaluation-could help increase the economic value of surveillance efforts. Finally, a collaborative, international platform for exchange and learning on surveillance as well as co-design and dissemination of surveillance standards is recommended.

Comparison of international legislation and standards on veterinary drug residues in food of animal origin.

Current legislation governing monitoring of drug residues in foodstuff of animal origin is being revised at the European level. This study provides a qualitative comparison of the legislation, public and private standards in the European Union, the United States of America (USA) and the Eurasian Customs Union/Russia. We made a quantitative comparison of Maximum Residue Levels (MRLs) applied in each region for pork kidneys for tetracycline (with a focus on doxycycline), penicillin and chloramphenicol. The Customs Union generally applied lower levels than the other regions, with MRLs for tetracyclines in pig kidneys being 1200 times lower than those applied in the USA. Growing consumer interest and concern about chemicals in their food could be leveraged to support and enhance the implementation of new initiatives to improve veterinary public health. Farmers and veterinarians could help reduce findings of drug residues in meat through the judicious use of preventive actions when using veterinary medicine.