Conservative and nonconservative mutations of the transmembrane CPC motif in ZntA: effect on metal selectivity and activity.

ZntA from Escherichia coli belongs to the P1B-ATPase transporter family and mediates resistance to toxic levels of selected divalent metal ions. P1B-type ATPases can be divided into subgroups based on substrate cation selectivity. ZntA has the highest selectivity for Pb2+, followed by Zn2+ and Cd2+; it also shows low levels of activity with Cu2+, Ni2+, and Co2+. It has two high-affinity metal-binding sites, one each in the N-terminus and the transmembrane domains. Ligands to the transmembrane metal site in ZntA include the cysteine residues of the conserved 392CPC394 motif in the sixth transmembrane helix. Pro393 is invariant in all P-type ATPases. For ZntA homologues with different metal ion selectivity, the cysteines are replaced by serine, histidine, and threonine. To test the effect on activity and metal ion selectivity, single alanine, histidine, and serine substitutions at Cys392 or Cys394 in ZntA were characterized, as well as double substitutions of both cysteines by histidine or serine. P393A was also characterized. C392A, C394A, and P393A lost the ability to bind a metal ion with high affinity in the transmembrane domain. Histidine and serine substitutions at Cys392 and Cys394 resulted in loss of binding of Pb2+ at the transmembrane site, indicating that both cysteines of the CPC motif are required for binding Pb2+ with high affinity in ZntA homologues. However, C392H, C392S, C394H, C394S, C392S/C394S, and C392H/C394H could bind other divalent metal ions at the transmembrane site and retained low but measurable activity. Interestingly, these mutants lost the predominant selectivity for Zn2+ and Cd2+ shown by wtZntA. Therefore, conserved residues contribute to metal selectivity by supplying ligands that bind metal ions not only with high affinity, as for Pb2+, but also with the most favorable binding geometry that results in efficient catalysis.

Monomeric yeast frataxin is an iron-binding protein.

Friedreich's ataxia, an autosomal cardio- and neurodegenerative disorder that affects 1 in 50,000 humans, is caused by decreased levels of the protein frataxin. Although frataxin is nuclear-encoded, it is targeted to the mitochondrial matrix and necessary for proper regulation of cellular iron homeostasis. Frataxin is required for the cellular production of both heme and iron-sulfur (Fe-S) clusters. Monomeric frataxin binds with high affinity to ferrochelatase, the enzyme involved in iron insertion into porphyrin during heme production. Monomeric frataxin also binds to Isu, the scaffold protein required for assembly of Fe-S cluster intermediates. These processes (heme and Fe-S cluster assembly) share requirements for iron, suggesting that monomeric frataxin might function as the common iron donor. To provide a molecular basis to better understand frataxin's function, we have characterized the binding properties and metal-site structure of ferrous iron bound to monomeric yeast frataxin. Yeast frataxin is stable as an iron-loaded monomer, and the protein can bind two ferrous iron atoms with micromolar binding affinity. Frataxin amino acids affected by the presence of iron are localized within conserved acidic patches located on the surfaces of both helix-1 and strand-1. Under anaerobic conditions, bound metal is stable in the high-spin ferrous state. The metal-ligand coordination geometry of both metal-binding sites is consistent with a six-coordinate iron-(oxygen/nitrogen) based ligand geometry, surely constructed in part from carboxylate and possibly imidazole side chains coming from residues within these conserved acidic patches on the protein. On the basis of our results, we have developed a model for how we believe yeast frataxin interacts with iron.

Metal-binding affinity of the transmembrane site in ZntA: implications for metal selectivity.

ZntA, a P1B-type ATPase, confers resistance specifically to Pb2+, Zn2+, and Cd2 in Escherichia coli. Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry measurements show that ZntA binds two metal ions with high affinity, one in the N-terminal domain and another in the transmembrane domain. Both sites can bind monovalent and divalent metal ions. Two proteins, deltaN-ZntA, in which the N-terminal domain is deleted, and C59A/C62A-ZntA, in which the N-terminal metal-binding site is disabled by site-specific mutagenesis, can only bind one metal ion. Because C59A/C62A-ZntA can bind a metal ion at the transmembrane site, the N-terminal domain does not block direct access of metal ions to it from the cytosol. A third mutant protein, C392A/C394A-ZntA, in which cysteines from the conserved CPC motif in transmembrane helix 6 are altered, binds metal ions only at the N-terminal site, indicating that both these cysteines form part of the transmembrane site. The metal affinity of the transmembrane site was determined in deltaN-ZntA and C59A/C62A-ZntA by competition titration using a metal ion indicator and by tryptophan fluorescence quenching. The binding affinity for the physiological substrates, Zn2+, Pb2+, and Cd2+, as well as for the extremely poor substrates, Cu2+, Ni2+, and Co2+, range from 10(6)-10(10) M(-1), and does not correlate with the metal selectivity shown by ZntA. Selectivity in ZntA possibly results from differences in metal-binding geometry that produce different structural responses. The affinity of the transmembrane site for metal ions is of similar magnitude to that of the N-terminal site [Liu J. et al. (2005) Biochemistry 44, 5159-5167]; thus, metal transfer between them would be facile.

Metal-binding characteristics of the amino-terminal domain of ZntA: binding of lead is different compared to cadmium and zinc.

ZntA from Escherichia coli, a P1-type ATPase, specifically transports Pb(II), Zn(II), and Cd(II). Most P1-type ATPases have an N-terminal domain that contains one or more copies of the conserved metal-binding motif, GXXCXXC. In ZntA, the N-terminal domain has approximately 120 residues with a single GXXCXXC motif, as well as four additional cysteine residues as part of the CCCDGAC motif. The metal-binding specificity and affinity of this domain in ZntA was investigated. Isolated proteins, N1-ZntA and N2-ZntA, containing residues 1-111 and 47-111 of ZntA, respectively, were characterized. N1-ZntA has both the CCCDGAC and GXXCXXC motifs, while N2-ZntA has only the GXXCXXC motif. ICP-MS measurements showed that N1-ZntA can bind both divalent metal ions such as Cd(II), Pb(II), and Zn(II) and monovalent metal ions such as Ag(I), with a stoichiometry of 1. N2-ZntA can bind Zn(II) and Cd(II) with a stoichiometry of 1 but not Pb(II). The affinity of N1-ZntA for Zn(II), Pb(II), and Cd(II) was measured by competition titration with metallochromic indicators. Association constants of approximately 10(8) M(-)(1) were obtained for Zn(II), Pb(II), and Cd(II) binding to N1-ZntA. To investigate whether the CCCDGAC sequence has an important role in binding specifically Pb(II), a mutant of ZntA, which lacked the first 46 residues, was constructed. This mutant, Delta46-ZntA, had the same activity as wtZntA with respect to Cd(II) and Zn(II). However, its activity with Pb(II) was similar to the mutant DeltaN-ZntA, which lacks the entire N-terminal domain (Mitra, B., and Sharma, R. (2001) Biochemistry 40, 7694-7699). Thus, binding of Pb(II) appears to involve different ligands, and possibly geometry, compared to Cd(II) and Zn(II).

Synthesis of a metallopeptide-PNA conjugate and its oxidative cross-linking to a DNA target.

A nickel(II)-PNA bioconjugate was prepared by formation of a salicylaldimine complex with the amino terminus of a peptide-PNA hybrid with the sequence Arg-His-Gly-[TACCTAGCAT]PNA-Arg-CONH2. Hybridization to complementary oligodeoxynucleotides was demonstrated, and covalent adduct formation was observed upon addition of KHSO5 as oxidant. In the absence of PNA, the reactivity of the phenolic radical generated as an intermediate was found to be G >> T >> C, A; by inclusion of the PNA delivery agent, cross-links between the two oligomers could be observed with T and C bases in the vicinity of the nickel complex, although G was still the most reactive site. The metal complex could be removed by treatment with EDTA following which the Schiff base linkage was readily hydrolyzed. The final result in this case is a salicylaldehyde moiety appended at the target site in DNA.

The importance of a critical protonation state and the fate of the catalytic steps in class A beta-lactamases and penicillin-binding proteins.

Beta-lactamases and penicillin-binding proteins are bacterial enzymes involved in antibiotic resistance to beta-lactam antibiotics and biosynthetic assembly of cell wall, respectively. Members of these large families of enzymes all experience acylation by their respective substrates at an active site serine as the first step in their catalytic activities. A Ser-X-X-Lys sequence motif is seen in all these proteins, and crystal structures demonstrate that the side-chain functions of the serine and lysine are in contact with one another. Three independent methods were used in this report to address the question of the protonation state of this important lysine (Lys-73) in the TEM-1 beta-lactamase from Escherichia coli. These techniques included perturbation of the pK(a) of Lys-73 by the study of the gamma-thialysine-73 variant and the attendant kinetic analyses, investigation of the protonation state by titration of specifically labeled proteins by nuclear magnetic resonance, and by computational treatment using the thermodynamic integration method. All three methods indicated that the pK(a) of Lys-73 of this enzyme is attenuated to 8.0-8.5. It is argued herein that the unique ground-state ion pair of Glu-166 and Lys-73 of class A beta-lactamases has actually raised the pK(a) of the active site lysine to 8.0-8.5 from that of the parental penicillin-binding protein. Whereas we cannot rule out that Glu-166 might activate the active site water, which in turn promotes Ser-70 for the acylation event, such as proposed earlier, we would like to propose as a plausible alternative for the acylation step the possibility that the ion pair would reconfigure to the protonated Glu-166 and unprotonated Lys-73. As such, unprotonated Lys-73 could promote serine for acylation, a process that should be shared among all active-site serine beta-lactamases and penicillin-binding proteins.

The Preparation, Characterization, and Magnetism of Copper 15-Metallacrown-5 Lanthanide Complexes.

The preparation and characterization of a series of encapsulated-lanthanide 15-metallacrown-5 complexes are reported. Planar ligands such as picoline hydroxamic acid (picha) or nonplanar alpha-amino hydroxamic acids (e.g., glycine hydroxamic acid (glyha)) led to one-step syntheses of metallacrowns in yields as high as 85%. The reaction of the appropriate hydroxamic acid with copper acetate and (1)/(5) equiv of gadolinium(III) or europium(III) nitrates in DMF or water yielded crystals of Gd(NO(3))(3)[15-MC(Cu(II)N(picha))-5], 1, Eu(NO(3))(3)[15-MC(Cu(II)N(picha))-5], 2, and Eu(NO(3))(3)[15-MC(Cu(II)N(glyha))-5], 3. Several other 15-metallacrown-5 complexes were synthesized with (1) Cu(II) or Ni(II) in the metallacrown ring metal position, (2) various lanthanides (La(III), Nd(III), Sm(III), Eu(III), Gd(III), Dy(III), Ho(III), Er(III), and Yb(III)) encapsulated in the center of the ring, and (3) chiral alpha-amino hydroxamic acids (e.g., phenylalanine hydroxamic acid (H(2)pheha), leucine hydroxamic acid (H(2)leuha), and tyrosine hydroxamic acid (H(2)tyrha)). It is believed that all of the complexes containing Cu(II) ions have the ring metals either in four-coordinate, square-planar environments, bound to two tetradentate hydroximate ligands, or in five-coordinate, square-pyramidal geometries if solvent is bound. Spectroscopic and magnetic characterization of the Ni(II) complexes suggests that they are either five- or six-coordinate. The encapsulated lanthanides are generally pentagonal bipyramidal, with five oxygen donors from the metallacrown ring and solvent or bidentate nitrate ions in the axial positions. The circular arrangement of ions results in interesting magnetic behavior. With Dy(III) encapsulated in the center of the ring, a magnetic moment as high as 10.9 &mgr;(B) is achieved. Analysis of the variable-temperature susceptibility of La(NO(3))(3)[15-MC(Cu(II)N(picha))-5] indicates that the five Cu(II) ions are antiferromagnetically coupled, forming an S = (1)/(2) ground spin state with a moment of 1.7 &mgr;(B) at liquid helium temperatures. Complex 1 shows ferromagnetic coupling of the Gd(III) ion to the five Cu ions at temperatures below 15 K. Studies of the metallacrown complexes in solution show that they are stable and soluble in DMF and water. A proton relaxation study on complex 1 has revealed a relaxivity of 9.8 mM(-)(1) s(-)(1) (20 degrees C and 30 MHz), a value that is comparable to those of clinically useful MRI contrast enhancement agents. Complex 1 crystallizes in the triclinic space group P&onemacr;, with a = 12.657(3) Å, b = 14.833(3) Å, c = 17.707(3) Å, alpha = 79.65(2) degrees, beta = 86.06(2) degrees, gamma = 68.69(2) degrees, V = 3046.6(12) Å, and Z = 2 (R1 = 0.0534, wR2 = 0.1289). Complex 2 crystallizes in the monoclinic space group P2(1)/n, with a = 16.319(2) Å, b = 21.863(2) Å, c = 18.410(3) Å, beta = 96.85(1) degrees, V = 6522(2) Å(3), and Z = 4 (R1 = 0.0463, wR2 = 0.0750). Complex 3 crystallizes in the triclinic space group P&onemacr;, with a = 11. 173(6) Å, b = 11.534(6) Å, c = 13.311(5) Å, alpha = 93.81(3) degrees, beta = 94.82(4) degrees, gamma = 107.20(4) degrees, V = 1625(2) Å(3), and Z = 2 (R1 = 0.1230, wR2 = 0.2979).