Impact of lifestyle on the gut microbiota of healthy infants and their mothers­the ALADDIN birth cohort.

An anthroposophic lifestyle, which has been associated with reduced allergy risk in children, has several characteristics that could influence gut microbiota. This study aimed to investigate the impact of anthroposophic lifestyle as well as specific early life exposures on the gut microbiota. In total, 665 stool samples from 128 mother-infant pairs from the ALADDIN birth cohort study were included. Samples collected from infants at ages 6 days, 3 weeks, 2 months and 6 months, and from their mothers before and after delivery, respectively, were analyzed using 454-pyrosequencing. Information regarding lifestyle exposures was collected prospectively through interviews and questionnaires. Six-month-old infants in anthroposophic families had a significantly higher abundance of Bifidobacterium and lower abundances of Bacteroides and Veillonella. Caesarean section and breastfeeding had a significant impact on the microbiota: caesarean section was primarily associated with delayed colonization of Bifidobacterium and Bacteroides, whereas breastfed children had a higher relative abundance of Bifidobacterium and a lower abundance of Clostridiales. However, despite large differences in lifestyle exposures, we determined no significant differences in the gut microbiota between the anthroposophic and non-anthroposophic mothers or their infants' before 6 months of age.

Herpesvirus infections and allergic sensitization in children of families with anthroposophic and non-anthroposophic lifestyle - the ALADDIN birth cohort.

BACKGROUND: Growing up in families with an anthroposophic lifestyle has been associated with reduced risk of allergic disease in children. The aim of this report was to assess whether children with this lifestyle are infected earlier with Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), which has been associated with reduced risk of allergic disease, and three other herpesviruses potentially involved in allergy development, namely Human herpesvirus 6 (HHV6), Human herpesvirus 7 (HHV7) and cytomegalovirus (CMV). METHODS: Within the ALADDIN (Assessment of Lifestyle and Allergic Disease During Infancy), birth cohort study 157 children were categorized according to lifestyle into anthroposophic and non-anthroposophic. IgG-levels for EBV, HHV6, HHV7 and CMV were determined in plasma samples collected at ages 12 and 24 months and from parents. IgE levels against seven common allergens were analyzed at 24 months. RESULTS: No significant differences in seroprevalence of EBV, HHV7 or CMV were detected at any age between the two lifestyle groups. The seroprevalence of HHV6 was significantly lower in the anthroposophic group at 24 months of age (74.6% vs. 87.5%, p-value 0.048). Further, no significant associations between allergic sensitization and seropositivity to any of the viruses were detected; however, an interaction effect of lifestyle could not be ruled out. CONCLUSIONS: Our results indicate that there is no strong influence of exposure to the anthroposophic lifestyle on the time for infection with EBV, HHV6, HHV7 or CMV. These infections can therefore not be assumed to be important factors in the allergy-protective effect of this lifestyle.

Lifestyle and salivary cortisol at the age of 12 and 24 months.

AIM: To analyse salivary cortisol levels in 12- and 24-month-olds from families with an anthroposophic lifestyle and comparisons ('partly anthroposophic' and 'non-anthroposophic'). METHODS: Salivary samples were collected at child ages of 12 (n = 178) and 24 (n = 149) months. Cortisol was analysed with radioimmunoassay technique. RESULTS: Evening cortisol levels in children from anthroposophic families were lower than in comparisons at 12 months of age (geometric means: anthroposophic 1.7, partly anthroposophic 1.9, non-anthroposophic 3.6 nmol/L; p = 0.024) and at 24 months of age (1.1, 1.8 and 2.9 nmol/L, respectively; p = 0.002). At 24 months of age, similar differences were noted also for the afternoon levels (2.3, 3.3 and 3.9 nmol/L, respectively; p = 0.043). At age 12 months, the differences in the evening cortisol were statistically explained by a meat-free diet and at age 24 months by the anthroposophic lifestyle as such. The circadian variations were parallel in the three groups at age 12 and 24 months. No cortisol differences were observed between parents representing different lifestyles. CONCLUSIONS: An anthroposophic lifestyle is associated with low cortisol levels in the evening at age 12 and 24 months, at age 24 months also in the afternoon.

Salivary cortisol levels and allergy in children: the ALADDIN birth cohort.

BACKGROUND: Pre- and postnatal stress have been related to allergy in children, but evidence from prospective studies is limited. Several environmental factors can influence the salivary cortisol level, which is used as a measure of activity of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to assess the association between salivary cortisol levels at 6 months of age and allergic manifestations during the first 2 years of life. METHODS: Salivary samples for the analysis of cortisol level were collected at 6 months of age on 3 occasions during 1 day from 203 children. Blood samples were collected at 6, 12, and 24 months of age for analyses of specific IgE. Information on allergy-related symptoms was obtained by repeated examinations of the children. Generalized estimating equation statistics were used to calculate the overall risk for outcome measures. RESULTS: The adjusted odds ratio for the relationship between morning cortisol level and IgE sensitization was 1.60 (95% CI, 1.22-2.10, P = .001) and for eczema it was 1.28 (95% CI, 1.03-1.59, P = .026). The odds ratio for afternoon cortisol level in relation to sensitization and eczema was 1.56 (95% CI, 1.26-1.94, P < .001) and 1.33 (95% CI, 1.12-1.58, P = .001), respectively, and for evening cortisol level it was 1.49 (95% CI, 1.22-1.83, P < .001) and 1.37 (95% CI, 1.18-1.59, P < .001). Salivary cortisol level in the evening was associated with food allergy. CONCLUSION: The association between salivary cortisol levels in infancy and allergic sensitization and allergic symptoms suggests a role of an altered hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis in the etiological process of allergies.

Low salivary cortisol levels in infants of families with an anthroposophic lifestyle.

The anthroposophic lifestyle implies environmental conditions for the infant aimed at reducing negative stress stimulation and is also related to a lower prevalence of allergic diseases in children. One aim of this prospective birth cohort study was to assess stress levels in infants with an anthroposophic lifestyle. A total of 330 infants from families with anthroposophic or more conventional lifestyles were followed from pregnancy of their mothers until the age of 6 months. Information on lifestyle factors was obtained from questionnaires. Salivary samples from 210 6-month olds and their parents were collected on three occasions during 1 day for analysis of cortisol. Infants from families with an anthroposophic lifestyle had significantly lower cortisol levels on all three sampling occasions compared to other infants. In the morning, the geometric means of salivary cortisol concentration (with 95% confidence limits) were 8.8 nmol/l (6.7-11.5), 11.3 nmol/l (9.3-13.7) and 14.9 nmol/l (11.3-19.6) in infants classified as anthroposophic, partly anthroposophic and non-anthroposophic, respectively (p=0.018). On the other hand, there was no difference in cortisol levels between the parents in the different groups. Several lifestyle factors differed significantly between the groups, but none of them independently explained the difference in cortisol levels. However, living on a farm during pregnancy was significantly associated with low saliva cortisol level in the infant. It can be concluded that low salivary cortisol levels in infants from anthroposophic families may be related to an environment with a lower degree of exposure to stress, which could influence the development of allergic diseases.

Comparisons between salivary cortisol levels in six-months-olds and their parents.

BACKGROUND: There is a close relation between the psychosocial environment of the infant--including the perception of maternal behaviour--and cortisol levels of the infant. One previous study has also demonstrated a correlation between mother and infant mean cortisol levels. In this study, this relation was further explored, also including father cortisol levels. METHODS: Saliva cortisol samples were collected from 51 six-months-olds and their parents on the same day in the morning, afternoon and evening. Analyses were performed with a radioimmunoassay technique. All mothers were at home with their child at this age and 47/51 mothers were breast feeding. RESULTS: Strong correlations were found between mother and child levels on all sampling occasions whereas weaker correlations were found between father and child levels and only in the afternoon and the evening samples. There was also a strong relation between waking up/bedtime-difference in mother and child and a weaker relation between the corresponding measure in father and child. CONCLUSIONS: The stronger mother-infant than father-infant cortisol level correlations probably mirror that mother and infant not only have genetic similarities but also have been exposed to similar environmental conditions to a higher degree than father and infant.