Can Isoflurane and Meloxicam Mitigate Pain Associated with Cautery Disbudding of 3-Week-Old Goat Kids?

: We evaluated the effect of pain mitigation strategies (isoflurane and meloxicam) on the behaviour and physiology of 3-week-old disbudded goat kids. Fifty Saanen does (mean ± SD, 21 ± 3 days old) were randomly allocated to one of five treatments: (1) cautery-disbudded (CAUT), (2) CAUT + isoflurane (ISO), (3) CAUT + isoflurane + meloxicam (ISO+MEL), (4) CAUT + meloxicam (MEL), and (5) handled without disbudding or pain relief (SHAM). Blood samples were taken immediately prior to treatment and at 15-, 60- and 120-min post-treatment to assess cortisol, glucose and lactate concentrations. Behaviour (head shaking and scratching, body shaking, feeding and self-grooming) was observed for 1 h pre- and post-treatment using video-cameras. ISO + MEL and ISO kids had lower cortisol concentrations than CAUT kids 15 min post-treatment (p ≤ 0.05). There was no effect of treatment or time for glucose and lactate concentrations (p ≥ 0.62). At 35 min post-treatment, CAUT, MEL and ISO kids performed more head shakes than SHAM kids (p ≤ 0.05). Isoflurane, with or without meloxicam, may reduce acute stress associated with disbudding of 3-week-old goat kids. More research is needed to assess whether isoflurane (with or without meloxicam) can provide sufficient pain relief for disbudding 3-week-old kids.

Evaluation of infrared thermography as a non-invasive method of measuring the autonomic nervous response in sheep.

Eye temperature measured using infrared thermography (IRT) can be used as a non-invasive measure of autonomic nervous system (ANS) activity in cattle. The objective of this study was to evaluate if changes in eye temperature (measured using IRT) can be used to non-invasively measure ANS activity in sheep. Twenty, 2 to 4-year-old, Romney ewes were randomly assigned to receive either epinephrine (EPI) or physiological saline (SAL) for 5 min administered via jugular catheter (n = 10 ewes/treatment). Eye temperature (°C) was recorded continuously using IRT for approximately 25 min before and 20 min after the start of infusion. Heart rate and heart rate variability, measured using the root mean square of successive differences (RMSSD) and the standard deviation of all inter-beat intervals (SDNN), were recorded for 5 min before and up to 10 min after the start of infusion. Blood samples were taken before and after the infusion period to measure plasma epinephrine, norepinephrine, cortisol and packed cell volume (PCV) concentrations. During the infusion period, maximum eye temperature was on average higher (P<0.05) in sheep that received epinephrine than those that received saline. On average, heart rate was higher (SAL: 87.5 beats/min, EPI: 123.2 beats/min, SED = 7.07 beats/min; P<0.05), and RMSSD (SAL: 55.3 ms, EPI: 17.3 ms, SED = 14.18 ms) and SDNN (SAL: 54.3 ms, EPI: 21.5 ms, SED = 10.00 ms) lower (P<0.05) in ewes during the 5 min post-infusion period compared with ewes that received saline. An infusion of epinephrine resulted in higher geometric mean epinephrine (P<0.05) and cortisol (P<0.05) but not norepinephrine (P>0.05) concentrations in ewes compared to an infusion of saline. PCV concentrations were higher (P<0.001) by 7 ± 1.0% (mean±SED) in ewes after an epinephrine infusion. These results suggest that heart rate variability is a sensitive, non-invasive method that can be used to measure ANS activity in sheep, whereas change in eye temperature measured using IRT is a less sensitive method.

Automated Collection and Analysis of Infrared Thermograms for Measuring Eye and Cheek Temperatures in Calves.

As the reliance upon automated systems in the livestock industry increases, technologies need to be developed which can be incorporated into these systems to monitor animal health and welfare. Infrared thermography (IRT) is one such technology that has been used for monitoring animal health and welfare and, through automation, has the potential to be integrated into automated systems on-farm. This study reports on an automated system for collecting thermal infrared images of calves and on the development and validation of an algorithm capable of automatically detecting and analysing the eye and cheek regions from those images. Thermal infrared images were collected using an infrared camera integrated into an automated calf feeder. Images were analysed automatically using an algorithm developed to determine the maximum eye and cheek (3 × 3-pixel and 9 × 9-pixel areas) temperatures in a given image. Additionally, the algorithm determined the maximum temperature of the entire image (image maximum temperature). In order to validate the algorithm, a subset of 350 images analysed using the algorithm were also analysed manually. Images analysed using the algorithm were highly correlated with manually analysed images for maximum image (R2 = 1.00), eye (R2 = 0.99), cheek 3 × 3-pixel (R2 = 0.85) and cheek 9 × 9-pixel (R2 = 0.90) temperatures. These findings demonstrate the algorithm to be a suitable method of analysing the eye and cheek regions from thermal infrared images. Validated as a suitable method for automatically detecting and analysing the eye and cheek regions from thermal infrared images, the integration of IRT into automated on-farm systems has the potential to be implemented as an automated method of monitoring calf health and welfare.

Infrared Thermography-A Non-Invasive Method of Measuring Respiration Rate in Calves.

Respiration rate (RR) is a common measure of cattle health and welfare. Traditionally, measuring RR involves counting flank movements as the animal inhales and exhales with each breath. This method is often considered difficult, labour-intensive and impractical. We validated the use of infrared thermography (IRT) as an alternative method of non-invasively measuring RR in young calves. RR was simultaneously recorded in two ways: (1) by observing flank movements from video recordings; and (2) by observing thermal fluctuations around the nostrils during inhalations and exhalations from infrared recordings. For each method, the time taken to complete five consecutive breaths (a breath being a complete inhalation/exhalation cycle) was recorded and used to calculate RR (breaths/min). From a group of five calves, a total of 12 video recordings and 12 infrared recordings were collected. For each procedure, 47 sets of five consecutive breaths were assessed. The RRs measured from video recordings of flank movements and thermal fluctuations around the nostrils from infrared recordings were highly correlated (R2 = 0.93). Validated as a suitable method for recording RR, future research can now focus on the development of algorithms to automate the use of IRT to support its integration into existing automated systems to remotely monitor calf health and welfare.

An attention bias test to assess anxiety states in laying hens.

Fear is a response to a known threat, anxiety is a response to a perceived threat. Both of these affective states can be detrimental to animal welfare in modern housing environments. In comparison to the well-validated tests for assessing fear in laying hens, tests for measuring anxiety are less developed. Perception of a threat can result in an attention bias that may indicate anxious affective states in individual hens following playback of an alarm call. In Experiment 1, an attention bias test was applied to hens that differed in their range access to show that hens that never ranged were more vigilant (stretching of the neck and looking around: P < 0.001) and slower to feed following the second alarm call playback (P = 0.01) compared with hens that ranged daily. All hens showed a reduction in comb temperature following the first alarm call (P < 0.001). In Experiment 2, an open field test was used to determine an effective dose of 2 mg/kg for the anxiogenic drug meta-Chlorophenylpiperazine (m-CPP) in adult laying hens. Hens dosed with 2 mg/kg showed reduced locomotion compared with a saline solution (P < 0.05). In Experiment 3, 2 mg/kg m-CPP or saline was administered to adult hens previously habituated to the open field arena to pharmacologically validate an attention bias test as a measure of anxiety. Hens dosed with m-CPP were slower to feed (P = 0.02) and faster to vocalize following a second alarm call playback (P = 0.03) but these hens did not exhibit the same vigilance behavior as documented in Experiment 1. The m-CPP hens also spent more time stepping and vocalizing (both P < 0.001) than the saline hens. An attention bias test could be used to assess anxiety. However, behavioral responses of hens may vary depending on their age or test environment familiarity, thus further refinement of the test is required. In these tests, 2 mg/kg of m-CPP resulted in motionless behavior when the environment was novel, but more movement and vocalizing when the environment was familiar. The extreme behavioral phenotypes exhibited by individually-tested birds may both be indicators of negative states.

The effectiveness of clove oil and two different cautery disbudding methods on preventing horn growth in dairy goat kids.

The effectiveness of clove oil and cautery disbudding on horn growth was evaluated in goat kids. The study used 243 Saanen doe kids (4±1 days old; mean±SD) on two goat farms that were disbudded with either (i) clove oil injection (CLOVE), (ii) a cautery iron and bud removed (BUDOFF), or (iii) a cautery iron with bud left intact (BUDON). Each kid received a different treatment per bud, which were balanced between buds (left/right) and randomly allocated. A trained observer monitored bud growth following treatment for 3 months recording either: N: no growth, H: normal horn, S: abnormal horn (scur), or SC: soft, fibrous lump (scorn). After the final observation, buds were assessed for the probability of detecting (i) success (no growth), (ii) scurs, (iii) horns or (iv) scorns [with 95% CI]. The probability of success for BUDOFF (0.77 [0.63, 0.87]) was higher than for BUDON (0.20 [0.11, 0.34]) and CLOVE (0.09 [0.04, 0.18]; P ≤ 0.05). Furthermore, the probability of success for BUDON was higher than for CLOVE (P ≤ 0.05). The probability of scurs was higher for CLOVE (0.72 [0.63, 0.80]) than BUDOFF (0.25 [0.17, 0.34]) and BUDON (0.30 [0.21, 0.39]; P ≤ 0.05). There was no difference in the probability of scurs for BUDOFF and BUDON (P > 0.05). The probability of horns was higher for CLOVE (0.21 [0.15, 0.29]) than BUDON (0.02 [0.01, 0.06]; P ≤ 0.05); horns were not observed for BUDOFF. The probability of scorns for BUDON, the only treatment that led to scorns, was 0.41 (0.25, 0.60). These results suggest that BUDOFF was more effective at preventing growth than CLOVE and BUDON and appears the most effective method, of the methods tested, for disbudding kids. Future research should explore other alternatives to cautery disbudding that may be both efficacious and cause less pain.

Evaluation of alternatives to cautery disbudding of dairy goat kids using physiological measures of immediate and longer-term pain.

We evaluated alternatives to cautery disbudding of goat kids using physiological measures of immediate and longer-term pain. Fifty Saanen doe kids were randomly assigned to 1 of 5 treatments (n = 10/treatment): (1) cautery disbudding (CAUT), (2) caustic paste disbudding (CASP), (3) liquid nitrogen disbudding (CRYO), (4) clove oil injected into the horn bud (CLOV), or (5) sham disbudding (SHAM). Serum cortisol and haptoglobin concentrations were measured from blood samples collected immediately before treatment (baseline) and at 15, 30, 60, and 120 min and then again at 6 and 24 h post-treatment. An infrared thermography camera was used to take images of the horn buds 24 h pre- and 24, 48, and 72 h post-treatment to measure skin temperature. Body weight was measured daily for 1 wk to assess weight change post-treatment. Images of the horn buds were taken at d 1, 2, and 7 and at 6 wk post-treatment to assess tissue damage and wound healing. Mean cortisol concentrations were elevated in CASP kids 1 h post-treatment relative to CAUT kids. Cortisol concentrations of CRYO kids were higher than those of CAUT kids 30 min post-treatment; concentrations for CLOV kids were similar to CAUT kids post-treatment. Mean haptoglobin concentrations were similar across treatments over time; however, CLOV kids had higher concentrations at 24 h post-treatment than all other treatments. Skin temperatures of CASP and CLOV kids were elevated relative to CAUT kids at all time points post-treatment, and all disbudded kids had skin temperatures above those of SHAM kids at 72 h post-treatment. Treatment did not influence weight gain. The CAUT kids had large, open wounds exposing bone; small scabs were still evident 6 wk post-treatment. The CASP kids had red and open, raw wounds that generated large eschars, apparent for up to 6 wk. The CRYO kids had closed, dry wounds initially, but over time lesions appeared that caused open wounds; small scabs were present 6 wk post-treatment. The CLOV kids had closed, dry wounds with blackened skin; healed skin and minimal scabs were present 6 wk post-treatment. Caustic paste and cryosurgical disbudding appeared to cause more pain compared with cautery disbudding; thus, these methods may not provide good alternatives to cautery disbudding. Clove oil appeared to cause a similar pain response as cautery disbudding and smaller wounds with earlier tissue repair; this method shows promise as an alternative to cautery disbudding.

Effect of isoflurane alone or in combination with meloxicam on the behavior and physiology of goat kids following cautery disbudding.

Cautery disbudding of goat kids is painful, but may be alleviated with pain mitigation. We therefore evaluated the effect of administering general anesthesia (isoflurane) or a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (meloxicam) on goat kid behavior and physiology following cautery disbudding. Trial 1 (n = 12/treatment) evaluated behavioral responses in 72 female Saanen dairy goat kids (mean ± standard error of the mean; 3.9 ± 0.15 d old) and trial 2 (n = 10/treatment) evaluated physiological responses in 60 female Saanen dairy goat kids (4.3 ± 0.14 d old). Goat kids were randomly assigned to 1 of 6 treatment groups that were either (1) sham-handled only (simulated disbudding; SHAM) or disbudded with (2) no pain relief (CAUT), (3) isoflurane gas (ISO), (4) isoflurane and s.c. meloxicam combined (ISO+MEL), (5) meloxicam s.c. (0.5 mg/kg of body weight; I-MEL), or (6) oral meloxicam (0.2 mg/kg of body weight; O-MEL). Head shaking, head scratching, self-grooming, feeding, and body shaking were continuously video recorded for 24 h pre- and post-treatment. Lying behavior was recorded continuously for 24 h pre- and post-treatment using accelerometers. Plasma cortisol, glucose, and lactate concentrations were measured from blood samples collected immediately before treatment (baseline) and at 15, 60, and 120 min post-treatment. Body temperature was measured immediately after blood sampling at all blood sampling time points. Head shaking and body shaking frequencies were 50% higher in CAUT than SHAM kids 5 min post-treatment; ISO+MEL and ISO kids performed 25% less body shakes than CAUT kids. Head scratching durations 1 h post-treatment were higher in CAUT than SHAM kids, whereas O-MEL were similar to SHAM kids from 2 h post-treatment. Self-grooming, feeding, and lying did not differ between groups. Cortisol concentrations were higher in CAUT than SHAM kids (156.4 ± 26.41 and 104.1 ± 26.41 nmol/L, respectively), whereas ISO+MEL and ISO kids (88.3 ± 26.41 and 113.2 ± 26.41 nmol/L, respectively) had lower cortisol concentrations than CAUT kids over the 2-h sampling period. Moreover, O-MEL and I-MEL kids (163.0 ± 26.41 and 130.9 ± 26.41 nmol/L, respectively) had similar cortisol concentrations to CAUT kids. We found no evidence that plasma glucose and lactate concentrations or body temperature were affected by treatment. The administration of isoflurane, with or without meloxicam, appeared to reduce pain associated with cautery disbudding.

Effects of space allowance on the behavior and physiology of cattle temporarily managed on rubber mats.

Dairy cattle managed in some pasture-based systems, such as in New Zealand, are predominantly kept outdoors all year around but are taken off pasture for periods, especially in wet weather to avoid soil damage. The use of rubber matting for such stand-off practices is becoming more common to improve animal welfare, and our objective was to investigate the effects of different space allowances on cow behavior and physiology when managed temporarily on rubber mats during a weather-induced stand-off period. Thirty pregnant, nonlactating Holstein-Friesian dairy cows were divided into 6 groups of 5 and exposed to 6 treatments following a Williams designed 6×6 Latin square. The treatments consisted of 6 space allowances on a 24-mm rubber surface during a simulated weather-induced stand-off period: 3.0, 4.5, 6.0, 7.5, 9.0, and 10.5 m(2)/cow. The stand-off period consisted of 18 h in the treatment pens followed by 6 h at pasture to allow for their daily feed intake (no feed was available during stand-off, following normal farm practice), for 3 consecutive days, with 6 d of recovery on pasture between treatments. When cows had more space available during the stand-off period, they spent more time lying on the rubber mats and less time lying on pasture during their daily 6-h feed break. Mean lying times (24 h, pasture and rubber mats combined) for the different space allowances were for 3.0 m(2)=7.5 h, 4.5 m(2)=10.2 h, 6.0 m(2)=11.9 h, 7.5 m(2)=12.4 h, and 10.5 m(2)=13.8 h. At 6.0 m(2) of space allowance per cow, the animals spent similar times lying per 24 h as when the cows were on recovery on pasture in between treatments (11.9 and 11.2 h, respectively). Aggressive interactions and nonaggressive lying disturbances were more frequent at lower space allowances (aggressive interactions decreased by 35% from 3.0 to 4.5 m(2)/cow, with a slower decline thereafter). Cows were dirtier after the stand-off period, particularly at lower space allowances. All cows had higher gait scores after the stand-off period; however, this change was unaffected by space allowance and very minor. Stride length, plasma cortisol, and body weight were all unaffected by the stand-off period and space allowance. The results suggest that to reduce aggressive behavior and maintain adequate lying times, dairy cattle managed temporarily on rubber matting for up to 18 h per day, without feed, should have a space allowance of at least 4.5 to 6.0 m(2) per cow.

Effects of early human handling on the pain sensitivity of young lambs.

OBJECTIVE: Pain sensitivity of lambs changes over the first weeks of life. However, the effects of early treatments such as human handling on pain sensitivity are unknown for this species. This study investigated the effects of regular early gentle human handling on the pain sensitivity of lambs, indicated by their behavioural responses to tail docking. STUDY DESIGN: Prospective part-blinded experimental study. ANIMALS: Twenty-nine singleton Coopworth lambs (females n=14, males n=15). METHODS: Starting at one day of age, lambs were either handled twice daily for 2 weeks (Handled), were kept in the presence of lambs who were being handled but were not handled themselves (Presence), or were exposed to a human only during routine feeding and care (Control). At 3 weeks of age, all lambs were tail docked using rubber rings. Changes in behaviour due to docking were calculated and change data were analyzed using two-way anova with treatment and test pen as main factors. RESULTS: All lambs showed significant increases in the frequency and duration of behaviours indicative of pain, including 'abnormal' behaviours, and decreases in the frequency and duration of 'normal' behaviours after docking. Handled lambs showed a smaller increase in the time spent lying abnormally after docking than did Control lambs (mean transformed change in proportion of 30 minutes spent±SE: Control 0.55±0.04; Handled 0.38±0.03; Presence 0.48±0.03; C versus H t=3.45, p=0.007). CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: These results provide some evidence that handling early in life may reduce subsequent pain sensitivity in lambs. While the behavioural effects of handling on pain behaviour were subtle, the results suggest, at the very least, that early handling does not increase pain sensitivity in lambs and suggests there is still flexibility postnatally in the pain processing system of a precocial species.

The impacts of knowledge of the past on preferences for future landscape change.

In this paper, we investigate whether people's knowledge of the past influences their preferences and values towards future landscape change. "Knowledge of the past" is one aspect of the information set held by individuals, and a well-established finding in economics is that changes in information can change preferences and values. The particular aspects of knowledge of the past we work with here are: (i) awareness of past landuse, as represented by woodland cover and (ii) awareness of differing and sometimes contradictory literary impressions of this past landscape. The case studies used here relate to prospective changes in woodland cover in two UK national parks, the Lake District and the Trossachs. We find that people who are made aware that the landscape has changed over time, or that perceptions of the landscape have changed over time, are more likely to favour changes to the current landscape (are less likely to favour the status quo). Knowledge of the past therefore seems to have an impact on preferences for future landscapes. We also investigate the impacts on preferences of how "special", how "wild" and how "worked in" people perceive the landscapes of these two national parks to be.

Failure to improve appropriateness of referrals to adult community mental health services--lessons from a multi-site cluster randomized controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: Non-clinical factors impact on decisions about whether to refer a patient from primary care to specialist mental health services. The aim of this study was to investigate whether introducing a standardized assessment of severity improves agreement on referrals. METHODS: Multi-site mixed-method cluster randomized controlled trial, investigating GP referrals from 73 practices (408 839 patients) to 11 community mental health teams (CMHTs). Intervention group GPs were asked to complete a Threshold Assessment Grid (TAG) rating of mental health problem severity. CMHTs rated referral appropriateness. RESULTS: Two hundred and eighty-one GPs made 1061 mental health referrals. The intervention was only partly implemented with 25% of intervention group GPs completing TAGs. No difference was found in appropriateness (OR 1.18, 95% CI 0.91-1.53) or secondary outcomes. Post-referral primary care contact rates were higher for the intervention group (IRR 1.36, 95% CI 1.07-1.73). Qualitative data identified professional and organizational barriers to implementation. CONCLUSIONS: Asking GPs to complete a TAG when referring to CMHTs did not improve primary-secondary care agreement on referrals. Low implementation means that uncertainty remains about whether introducing a severity-focussed measure into the referral process is beneficial. Introducing local protocols to manage demand at this interface may not be successful and more attention needs to be paid to human and organizational factors in managing interfaces between services.

Loss of doctor-to-doctor communication: lessons from the reconfiguration of mental health services in England.

OBJECTIVE: To explore the tensions across the primary-secondary interface when referral from primary care is to a team and to inform service developments in other specialties. METHODS: A nested qualitative study within a randomized controlled trial of primary care and Community Mental Health Teams (CMHTs) in Croydon and Manchester, UK. For the qualitative study, interviews were carried out with general practitioners (GPs), psychiatrists and managers or clinical leads of the CMHTs. RESULTS: GPs described the need for access to specialist knowledge, which they perceived to lie with the psychiatrist, and referral to a team was not perceived to allow this access. A personal threshold was identified by GPs after which they referred the patient to secondary care. CMHTs and psychiatrists recognized that this personal threshold differed between GPs, but their criteria for accepting referrals did not seem to allow for a flexible response to referral requests, leading to the referral being labelled as 'inappropriate'. The lack of direct doctor-to-doctor communication was perceived by respondents to contribute to a fragmentation of patient care. Strategies were described whereby the system was bypassed to achieve doctor-to-doctor communication, which undermined the team. CONCLUSIONS: Development of intermediate or 'Tier 2' services beyond the mental health services, where the GP refers to a team rather than to a specialist (hospital consultant) could benefit from reflecting on experiences with mental health services. There is a danger that new community services for the physically ill will engender the same level of confusion and discontent described by GPs and other health professionals in this study who are concerned with mental health care. Flexibility is needed within care pathways, including the provision of direct doctor-to-doctor communication together with approaches to minimize the marginalization of non-medical professionals.

A qualitative study of referral to community mental health teams in the UK: exploring the rhetoric and the reality.

BACKGROUND: Generic community mental health teams (CMHTs) currently deliver specialist mental health care in England. Policy dictates that CMHTs focus on those patients with greatest need but it has proved difficult to establish consistent referral criteria. The aim of this study was to explore the referral process from the perspectives of both the referrers and the CMHTs. METHODS: Qualitative study nested in a randomised controlled trial. Interviews with general practitioner (GP) referrers, CMHT Consultant Psychiatrists and team leaders. Taping of referral allocation meetings. RESULTS: There was a superficial agreement between the referrers and the referred to on the function of the CMHT, but how this was operationalised in practice resulted in a lack of clarity over the referral process, with tensions apparent between the views of the referrers (GPs) and the CMHT team leaders, and between team members. The process of decision-making within the team was inconsistent with little discussion of, or reflection on, the needs of the referred patient. CONCLUSION: CMHTs describe struggling to deal with GPs who are perceived as having variable expertise in managing patients with mental health problems. CMHT rhetoric about defined referral criteria is interpreted flexibly with CMHT managers and Psychiatrists concentrating on their own capacity, roles and responsibilities with limited consideration of the primary care perspective or the needs of the referred patient. TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER: ISRCTN86197914.

Interaction of CD22 with alpha2,6-linked sialoglycoconjugates: innate recognition of self to dampen B cell autoreactivity?

CD22 is a glycoprotein that associates with the B cell antigen receptor and acts as a negative regulator of receptor signaling; its extracellular domain binds alpha2,6-linked sialoglycoconjugates. Here we show that B cell activation by antigen displayed on the surface of a target cell is depressed if the target co-expresses alpha2,6-sialoglycoconjugates: this inhibition is dependent on CD22. Since sialylation is largely a feature of higher eukaryotes with alpha2,6-sialyltransferase increasing during inflammation, we propose that the CD22 / sialoglycoconjugate interaction allows context-dependent B cell activation, possibly acting as a crude discriminator of self in order to dampen B cell autoreactivity and the initiation of autoimmunity.