Large airway wall vascularity in patients with asthma-COPD overlap: a bronchoscopy study.

Large airway wall lamina propria in patients with asthma-COPD overlap is hypovascular with an increase in reticular basement membrane neoangiogenesis, reflecting smoking-related COPD-like pathology and potential epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition https://bit.ly/49DeoFX.

Neoseiulus mites as biological control agents against Megalurothrips usitatus (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) and Frankliniella intonsa (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) on cowpea crop: laboratory to field.

Megalurothrips usitatus (Bagnall) (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) and Frankliniella intonsa (Trybom) (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) have been detrimental to cowpea production in many countries. Laboratory experiments were conducted to determine the prey stage preference and functional response of 2 predatory mites species, Neoseiulus barkeri (Hughes) (Acari: Phytoseiidae), and Neoseiulus californicus (McGregor) (Acari: Phytoseiidae), towards 2 thrips species (TS), M. usitatus, and F. intonsa, at varying densities and life stages on cowpea. Results shown that Neoseiulus species had a preference for different life stages of prey. Neoseiulus barkeri consumed more M. usitatus nymphs, while N. californicus consumed more F. intonsa (second-instar nymphs). The functional response of the 2 Neoseiulus spp. to nymphs of 2 TS was Type II on cowpea. The higher attack rate coefficient (a') and shorter handling time (Th) values were found on N. barkeri against M. usitatus, and a similar trend was found for those in N. californicus against F. intonsa. Field-caged trials were conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of Neoseiulus spp. in controlling 2 TS. The results have shown that Neoseiulus spp. was effective in controlling the 2 TS, with varying control efficacies at high or low release rates. The study provided valuable information on using Neoseiulus spp. as biological control agents against M. usitatus and F. intonsa in cowpea crops.

Platelet Activating Factor Receptor and Intercellular Adhesion Molecule-1 Expression Increases in the Small Airway Epithelium and Parenchyma of Patients with Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis: Implications for Microbial Pathogenesis.

Background: Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) is an irreversible lung fibrotic disorder of unknown cause. It has been reported that bacterial and viral co-infections exacerbate disease pathogenesis. These pathogens use adhesion molecules such as platelet activating factor receptor (PAFR) and intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) to gain cellular entry, causing infections. Methods: Immunohistochemical staining was carried out for lung resections from IPF patients (n = 11) and normal controls (n = 12). The quantification of PAFR and ICAM-1 expression is presented as a percentage in the small airway epithelium. Also, type 2 pneumocytes and alveolar macrophages were counted as cells per mm2 of the parenchymal area and presented as a percentage. All image analysis was done using Image Pro Plus 7.0 software. Results: PAFR expression significantly increased in the small airway epithelium (p < 0.0001), type 2 pneumocytes (p < 0.0001) and alveolar macrophages (p < 0.0001) compared to normal controls. Similar trend was observed for ICAM-1 expression in the small airway epithelium (p < 0.0001), type 2 pneumocytes (p < 0.0001) and alveolar macrophages (p < 0.0001) compared to normal controls. Furthermore, the proportion of positively expressed type 2 pneumocytes and alveolar macrophages was higher in IPF than in normal control. Conclusions: This is the first study to show PAFR and ICAM-1 expression in small airway epithelium, type 2 pneumocytes and alveolar macrophages in IPF. These findings could help intervene microbial impact and facilitate management of disease pathogenesis.

Differential expression of mast cells in the small airways and alveolar septa of current smokers and patients with small airway disease and COPD.

Background: COPD patients suffer from dysregulated and suppressed immune functionality, determined by their loss of degranulating capacity. Here we provide crucial information on the presence of degranulated mast cells (MCs) in COPD airways and demonstrate their relationship to lung physiology and airway remodelling. Methods: Small airway lung resections from non-smoking controls (NC), normal lung function smokers (NLFS), small airway disease (SAD), and mild-to-moderate COPD current smokers (COPD-CS) and ex-smokers (COPD-ES) were dual immuno-stained with MC tryptase and degranulation marker lysosome-associated membrane protein (LAMP)-1. Total MCs, degranulating MCs and non-MCs were enumerated in small airway epithelium and subepithelium, and in alveolar septa. Results: In the small airway wall subepithelial areas, COPD-CS and COPD-ES patients had significantly lower MCs than the NC group (p<0.05), although the numbers were considerably higher in the small airway epithelium (p<0.01). Degranulating non-MCs were higher in SAD (p<0.05) than in COPD in the small airway subepithelium. In contrast, there were significant increases in total MCs (degranulated and non-degranulated) and degranulated non-MCs in the alveolar septum of COPD patients compared with the NC group (p<001). The lower numbers of MCs in the subepithelium correlated with lower forced expiratory volume in 1 s (FEV1)/forced vital capacity (FVC) and forced expiratory flow at 25-75% of FVC (FEF25-75%), higher smoking rates in COPD patients, and increased small airway wall thickness and extracellular matrix. The increase in MCs in the alveolar septum negatively correlated with FEF25-75%. Conclusions: This study is the first to assess the differential pattern of MC, degranulating MC and non-MC populations in the small airways and alveoli of COPD patients. The spatial positioning of the MCs within the airways showed variable correlations with lung function.

TGF-ß1, pSmad-2/3, Smad-7, and ß-Catenin Are Augmented in the Pulmonary Arteries from Patients with Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis (IPF): Role in Driving Endothelial-to-Mesenchymal Transition (EndMT).

Background: We have previously reported that endothelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EndMT) is an active process in patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) contributing to arterial remodelling. Here, we aim to quantify drivers of EndMT in IPF patients compared to normal controls (NCs). Methods: Lung resections from thirteen IPF patients and eleven NCs were immunohistochemically stained for EndMT drivers, including TGF-ß1, pSmad-2/3, Smad-7, and ß-catenin. Intima, media, and adventitia were analysed for expression of each EndMT driver in pulmonary arteries. Computer- and microscope-assisted Image ProPlus7.0 image analysis software was used for quantifications. Results: Significant TGF-ß1, pSmad-2/3, Smad-7, and ß-catenin expression was apparent across all arterial sizes in IPF (p < 0.05). Intimal TGF-ß1, pSmad-2/3, Smad-7, and ß-catenin were augmented in the arterial range of 100-1000 µm (p < 0.001) compared to NC. Intimal TGF-ß1 and ß-catenin percentage expression showed a strong correlation with the percentage expression of intimal vimentin (r' = 0.54, p = 0.05 and r' = 0.61, p = 0.02, respectively) and intimal N-cadherin (r' = 0.62, p = 0.03 and r' = 0.70, p = 0.001, respectively). Intimal TGF-ß1 and ß-catenin expression were significantly correlated with increased intimal thickness as well (r' = 0.52, p = 0.04; r' = 0.052, p = 0.04, respectively). Moreover, intimal TGF-ß1 expression was also significantly associated with increased intimal elastin deposition (r' = 0.79, p = 0.002). Furthermore, total TGF-ß1 expression significantly impacted the percentage of DLCO (r' = -0.61, p = 0.03). Conclusions: This is the first study to illustrate the involvement of active TGF-ß/Smad-2/3-dependent and ß-catenin-dependent Wnt signalling pathways in driving EndMT and resultant pulmonary arterial remodelling in patients with IPF. EndMT is a potential therapeutic target for vascular remodelling and fibrosis in general in patients with IPF.

Endothelial to mesenchymal transition is an active process in smokers and patients with early COPD contributing to pulmonary arterial pathology.

Background: We have previously reported pulmonary arterial remodelling in smokers and patients with early COPD, which can be attributed to endothelial to mesenchymal transition (EndMT). In this study, we aimed to evaluate if EndMT is an active mechanism in smokers and COPD. Methods: Immunohistochemical staining for the EndMT biomarkers CD31, N-cadherin, vimentin and S100A4 was done on lung resection tissue from 49 subjects. These comprised 15 nonsmoker controls (NC), six normal lung function smokers (NLFS), nine patients with small airway disease (SAD), nine current smokers with mild-moderate COPD (COPD-CS) and 10 ex-smokers with COPD (COPD-ES). Pulmonary arteries were analysed using Image ProPlus software v7.0. Results: We noted reduced junctional CD31+ endothelial cells (p<0.05) in the intimal layer of all smoking groups compared to NC. We also observed increased abundance of the mesenchymal markers N-cadherin (p<0.05) and vimentin (p<0.001) in all smoking groups and across all arterial sizes versus NC, except for N-cadherin in large arteries in COPD-CS. The abundance of S100A4 correlated with arterial thickness (small: r=0.29, p=0.05; medium: r=0.33, p=0.03; large: r=0.35, p=0.02). Vimentin in the small arterial wall negatively correlated with forced expiratory volume in 1 s/forced vital capacity (r= -0.35, p=0.02) and forced expiratory flow rate at 25-75% of forced vital capacity (r= -0.34, p=0.03), while increased cytoplasmic CD31 abundance in the intimal layer of medium and large arteries negatively correlated with predicted diffusing capacity of the lung for carbon monoxide (medium: r= -0.35, p=0.04; large: r= -0.39, p=0.03). Conclusion: This is the first study showing the acquisition of mesenchymal traits by pulmonary endothelial cells from NLFS, SAD and mild-moderate COPD patients through EndMT. This informs on the potential early origins of pulmonary hypertension in smokers and patients with early COPD.

Epithelial-mesenchymal transition changes in nonsmall cell lung cancer patients with early COPD.

Background: Epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) might be central to lung cancer development in smokers and COPD. We illustrate EMT changes in a broader demographic of patient groups who were diagnosed with nonsmall cell lung cancer (adenocarcinoma and squamous cell carcinoma). These included COPD current and ex-smokers, patients with small airway disease and normal lung function smokers compared to normal controls. Methods: We had access to surgically resected small airway tissue from 46 subjects and assessed for airway wall thickness and immunohistochemically for the EMT biomarkers E-cadherin, N-cadherin, S100A4, vimentin and epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR). All tissue analysis was done with a computer and microscope-assisted Image-Pro Plus 7.0 software. Results: Airway wall thickness significantly increased across all pathological groups (p<0.05) compared to normal controls. Small airway epithelial E-cadherin expression markedly decreased (p<0.01), and increases in N-cadherin, vimentin, S100A4 and EGFR expression were observed in all pathological groups compared to normal controls (p<0.01). Vimentin-positive cells in the reticular basement membrane, lamina propria and adventitia showed a similar trend to epithelium across all pathological groups (p<0.05); however, such changes were only observed in reticular basement membrane for S100A4 (p<0.05). Vimentin was higher in adenocarcinoma versus squamous cell carcinoma; in contrast, S100A4 was higher in the squamous cell carcinoma group. EGFR and N-cadherin expression in both phenotypes was markedly higher than E-cadherin, vimentin and S100A4 (p<0.0001). Conclusion: EMT is an active process in the small airway of smokers and COPD diagnosed with nonsmall cell lung cancer, contributing to small airway remodelling and cancer development as seen in these patients.

The Molecular Blueprint for Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD): A New Paradigm for Diagnosis and Therapeutics.

The global prevalence of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) has increased over the last decade and has emerged as the third leading cause of death worldwide. It is characterized by emphysema with prolonged airflow limitation. COPD patients are more susceptible to COVID-19 and increase the disease severity about four times. The most used drugs to treat it show numerous side effects, including immune suppression and infection. This review discusses a narrative opinion and critical review of COPD. We present different aspects of the disease, from cellular and inflammatory responses to cigarette smoking in COPD and signaling pathways. In addition, we highlighted various risk factors for developing COPD apart from smoking, like occupational exposure, pollutants, genetic factors, gender, etc. After the recent elucidation of the underlying inflammatory signaling pathways in COPD, new molecular targeted drug candidates for COPD are signal-transmitting substances. We further summarize recent developments in biomarker discovery for COPD and its implications for disease diagnosis. In addition, we discuss novel drug targets for COPD that could be explored for drug development and subsequent clinical management of cardiovascular disease and COVID-19, commonly associated with COPD. Our extensive analysis of COPD cause, etiology, diagnosis, and therapeutic will provide a better understanding of the disease and the development of effective therapeutic options. In-depth knowledge of the underlying mechanism will offer deeper insights into identifying novel molecular targets for developing potent therapeutics and biomarkers of disease diagnosis.

Investigating potential of cholic acid, syringic acid, and mangiferin as cancer therapeutics through sphingosine kinase 1 inhibition.

The signaling of sphingosine kinase 1 (SphK1) and sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) regulates various diseases, including multiple sclerosis, atherosclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis, inflammation-related ailments, diabetes, and cancer. SphK1 is considered an attractive potential drug target and is extensively explored in cancer and other inflammatory diseases. In this study, we have investigated the inhibitory potential and binding affinity of SphK1 with cholic acid (CA), syringic acid (SA), and mangiferin (MF) using a combination of docking and molecular dynamics (MD) simulation studies followed by experimental measurements of binding affinity and enzyme inhibition assays. We observed these compounds bind to SphK1 with a significantly high affinity and eventually inhibit its kinase activity with IC50 values of 28.23 µM, 33.35 µM, and 57.2 µM for CA, SA, and MF, respectively. Further, the docking and 100 ns MD simulation studies showed that CA, SA, and MF bind with the active site residues of SphK1 with favorable energy and strong non-covalent interactions that might be accountable for inhibiting its kinase activity. Our finding indicates that CA, SA, and MF may be implicated in designing novel anti-cancer therapeutics with an improved affinity and lesser side effects by targeting SphK1.

Structure-Based Identification of Natural Compounds as Potential RET-Kinase Inhibitors for Therapeutic Targeting of Neurodegenerative Diseases.

BACKGROUND: Tyrosine-protein kinase receptor Ret (RET), a proto-oncogene, is considered as an attractive drug target for cancer and neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer's disease (AD). OBJECTIVE: We aimed to identify potential inhibitors of RET kinase among natural compounds present in the ZINC database. METHODS: A multistep structure-based virtual screening approach was used to identify potential RET kinase inhibitors based on their binding affinities, docking scores, and interactions with the biologically important residues of RET kinase. To further validate the potential of these compounds as therapeutic leads, molecular dynamics (MD) simulations for 100 ns were carried out and subsequently evaluated the stability, conformational changes, and interaction mechanism of RET in-complex with the elucidated compounds. RESULTS: Two natural compounds, ZINC02092851 and ZINC02726682, demonstrated high affinity, specificity for the ATP-binding pocket of RET and drug-likeness properties. The MD simulation outputs indicated that the binding of both compounds stabilizes the RET structure and leads to fewer conformational changes. CONCLUSIONS: The findings suggest that ZINC02092851 and ZINC02726682 may be potential inhibitors for RET, offering valuable leads for drug development against RET-associated diseases. Our study provides a promising avenue for developing new therapeutic strategies against complex diseases, including AD. Identifying natural compounds with high affinity and specificity for RET provides a valuable starting point for developing novel drugs that could help combat these debilitating diseases.

Airway inflammatory changes in the lungs of patients with asthma-COPD overlap (ACO): a bronchoscopy endobronchial biopsy study.

BACKGROUND: Although asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) are two distinct chronic airway inflammatory diseases, they often co-exist in a patient and the condition is referred to as asthma-COPD overlap (ACO). Lack of evidence regarding the inflammatory cells in ACO airways has led to their poor prognosis and treatment. The objective of this endobronchial biopsy (EBB) study was to enumerate inflammatory cellular changes in the airway wall of ACO compared with asthma, COPD current smokers (CS) and ex-smokers (ES), normal lung function smokers (NLFS), and non-smoker controls (HC). METHODS: EBB tissues from 74 patients were immunohistochemically stained for macrophages, mast cells, eosinophils, neutrophils, CD8+ T-cells and CD4+ T-cells. The microscopic images of stained tissues were evaluated in the epithelium, reticular basement membrane (RBM) cells/mm RBM length, and lamina propria (LP) cells/mm2 up to a depth of 120 µM using the image analysis software Image-Pro Plus 7.0. The observer was blinded to the images and disease diagnosis. Statistical analysis was performed using GraphPad Prism v9. RESULTS: The tissue macrophages in ACO were substantially higher in the epithelium and RBM than in HC (P < 0.001 for both), COPD-ES (P < 0.001 for both), and -CS (P < 0.05 and < 0.0001, respectively). The ACO LP macrophages were significantly higher in number than COPD-CS (P < 0.05). The mast cell numbers in ACO were lower than in NLFS (P < 0.05) in the epithelium, lower than COPD (P < 0.05) and NLFS (P < 0.001) in RBM; and lower than  HC (P < 0.05) in LP. We noted lower eosinophils in ACO LP than HC (P < 0.05) and the lowest neutrophils in both ACO and asthma. Furthermore, CD8+ T-cell numbers increased in the ACO RBM than HC (P < 0.05), COPD-ES (P < 0.05), and NLFS (P < 0.01); however, they were similar in number in epithelium and LP across groups. CD4+ T-cells remained lower in number across all regions and groups. CONCLUSION: These results suggest that the ACO airway tissue inflammatory cellular profile differed from the contributing diseases of asthma and COPD with a predominance of macrophages.

Therapeutic Targeting of Regulated Signaling Pathways of Non-Small Cell Lung Carcinoma.

Non-small cell lung carcinoma (NSCLC) is the most common cancer globally. Phytochemicals and small molecule inhibitors significantly prevent varying types of cancers, including NSCLC. These therapeutic molecules serve as important sources for new drugs that interfere with cellular proliferation, apoptosis, metastasis, and angiogenesis by regulating signaling pathways. These molecules affect several cellular signaling cascades, including p53, NF-κB, STAT3, RAS, MAPK/ERK, Wnt, and AKT/PI3K, and are thus implicated in the therapeutic management of cancers. This review aims to describe the bioactive compounds and small-molecule inhibitors, their anticancer action, and targeting cellular signaling cascades in NSCLC. We highlighted the therapeutic potential of Epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG), Perifosine, ABT-737, Thymoquinine, Quercetin, Venetoclax, Gefitinib, and Genistein. These compounds are implicated in the therapeutic management of NSCLC. This review further offers deeper mechanistic insights into different signaling pathways that could be targeted for NSCLC therapy by phytochemicals and small-molecule inhibitors.

Transforming growth factor-ß1 and SMAD signalling pathway in the small airways of smokers and patients with COPD: potential role in driving fibrotic type-2 epithelial mesenchymal transition.

Background: COPD is a common disease characterized by respiratory airflow obstruction. TGF-ß1 and SMAD pathway is believed to play a role in COPD pathogenesis by driving epithelial mesenchymal transition (EMT). Methods: We investigated TGF-ß1 signalling and pSmad2/3 and Smad7 activity in resected small airway tissue from patients with; normal lung function and a smoking history (NLFS), current smokers and ex-smokers with COPD GOLD stage 1 and 2 (COPD-CS and COPD-ES) and compared these with normal non-smoking controls (NC). Using immunohistochemistry, we measured activity for these markers in the epithelium, basal epithelium, and reticular basement membrane (RBM). Tissue was also stained for EMT markers E-cadherin, S100A4 and vimentin. Results: The Staining of pSMAD2/3 was significantly increased in the epithelium, and RBM of all COPD groups compared to NC (p <0.0005). There was a less significant increase in COPD-ES basal cell numbers compared to NC (p= 0.02). SMAD7 staining showed a similar pattern (p <0.0001). All COPD group levels of TGF-ß1 in the epithelium, basal cells, and RBM cells were significantly lower than NC (p <0.0001). Ratio analysis showed a disproportionate increase in SMAD7 levels compared to pSMAD2/3 in NLFS, COPD-CS and COPD-ES. pSMAD negatively correlated with small airway calibre (FEF25-75%; p= 0.03 r= -0.36). EMT markers were active in the small airway epithelium of all the pathological groups compared to patients with COPD. Conclusion: Activation of the SMAD pathway via pSMAD2/3 is triggered by smoking and active in patients with mild to moderate COPD. These changes correlated to decline in lung function. Activation of the SMADs in the small airways is independent of TGF-ß1, suggesting factors other than TGF-ß1 are driving these pathways. These factors may have implications for small airway pathology in smokers and COPD through the process of EMT, however more mechanistic work is needed to prove these correlations.

The Complex Association between COPD and COVID-19.

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is significant cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. There is mounting evidence suggesting that COPD patients are at increased risk of severe COVID-19 outcomes; however, it remains unclear whether they are more susceptible to acquiring SARS-CoV-2 infection. In this comprehensive review, we aim to provide an up-to-date perspective of the intricate relationship between COPD and COVID-19. We conducted a thorough review of the literature to examine the evidence regarding the susceptibility of COPD patients to COVID-19 infection and the severity of their disease outcomes. While most studies have found that pre-existing COPD is associated with worse COVID-19 outcomes, some have yielded conflicting results. We also discuss confounding factors such as cigarette smoking, inhaled corticosteroids, and socioeconomic and genetic factors that may influence this association. Furthermore, we review acute COVID-19 management, treatment, rehabilitation, and recovery in COPD patients and how public health measures impact their care. In conclusion, while the association between COPD and COVID-19 is complex and requires further investigation, this review highlights the need for careful management of COPD patients during the pandemic to minimize the risk of severe COVID-19 outcomes.

Endothelial-to-mesenchymal transition: a precursor to pulmonary arterial remodelling in patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis.

Background: We have previously reported arterial remodelling in patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) and suggested that endothelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EndMT) might be central to these changes. This study aims to provide evidence for active EndMT in IPF patients. Methods: Lung resections from 13 patients with IPF and 15 normal controls (NCs) were immunostained for EndMT biomarkers: vascular endothelial cadherin (VE-cadherin), neural cadherin (N-cadherin), S100A4 and vimentin. Pulmonary arteries were analysed for EndMT markers by using computer- and microscope-assisted image analysis software Image ProPlus7.0. All the analysis was done with observer blinded to subject and diagnosis. Results: Increased expression of mesenchymal markers N-cadherin (p<0.0001), vimentin (p<0.0001) and S100A4 (p<0.05) was noted with downregulation of junctional endothelial VE-cadherin (p<0.01) in the intimal layer of the arteries from patients with IPF compared to NCs. Cadherin switch was observed in IPF patients, showing increase in endothelial N-cadherin and decrease in VE-cadherin (p<0.01). There was also VE-cadherin shift from junctions to cytoplasm (p<0.01), effecting endothelial cell integrity in patients with IPF. In IPF, individual mesenchymal markers vimentin and N-cadherin negatively correlated with diffusing capacity of the lungs for carbon monoxide (r'= -0.63, p=0.03 and r'= -0.66, p=0.01). Further, N-cadherin positively correlated with arterial thickness (r'=0.58, p=0.03). Conclusion: This is the first study to demonstrate active EndMT in size-based classified pulmonary arteries from IPF patients and potential role in driving remodelling changes. The mesenchymal markers had a negative impact on the diffusing capacity of the lungs for carbon monoxide. This work also informs early origins of pulmonary hypertension in patients with IPF.

Tracking control design for fractional order systems: A passivity-based port-Hamiltonian framework.

This article focuses on the design of tracking control for chaotic fractional order systems subjected to perturbations in a port-Hamiltonian framework. The fractional order systems of general form are modeled into port-controlled Hamiltonian form. Then, the extended results on the dissipativity, energy balance, and passivity of the fractional order systems are proved and presented in this paper. The port-controlled Hamiltonian form of the fractional order systems are proved to be asymptotically stable via energy balancing concept. Furthermore, a tracking controller is designed for the fractional order port-controlled Hamiltonian form by utilizing the matching conditions of the port-Hamiltonian systems. Stability of the system is established and analyzed explicitly for the closed-loop system with the help of direct Lyapunov method. Finally, an application example is solved with simulation results and discussions to prove the effectiveness of the propounded control design approach.

The neuroprotective potential of phytochemicals in traumatic brain injury: mechanistic insights and pharmacological implications.

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) leads to brain damage, comprising both immediate primary damage and a subsequent cascade of secondary injury mechanisms. The primary injury results in localized brain damage, while the secondary damage initiates inflammatory responses, followed by the disruption of the blood-brain barrier, infiltration of peripheral blood cells, brain edema, and the release of various immune mediators, including chemotactic factors and interleukins. TBI disrupts molecular signaling, cell structures, and functions. In addition to physical tissue damage, such as axonal injuries, contusions, and haemorrhages, TBI interferes with brain functioning, impacting cognition, decision-making, memory, attention, and speech capabilities. Despite a deep understanding of the pathophysiology of TBI, an intensive effort to evaluate the underlying mechanisms with effective therapeutic interventions is imperative to manage the repercussions of TBI. Studies have commenced to explore the potential of employing natural compounds as therapeutic interventions for TBI. These compounds are characterized by their low toxicity and limited interactions with conventional drugs. Moreover, many natural compounds demonstrate the capacity to target various aspects of the secondary injury process. While our understanding of the pathophysiology of TBI, there is an urgent need for effective therapeutic interventions to mitigate its consequences. Here, we aimed to summarize the mechanism of action and the role of phytochemicals against TBI progression. This review discusses the therapeutic implications of various phytonutrients and addresses primary and secondary consequences of TBI. In addition, we highlighted the roles of emerging phytochemicals as promising candidates for therapeutic intervention of TBI. The review highlights the neuroprotective roles of phytochemicals against TBI and the mechanistic approach. Furthermore, our efforts focused on the underlying mechanisms, providing a better understanding of the therapeutic potential of phytochemicals in TBI therapeutics.

Arterial remodelling in smokers and in patients with small airway disease and COPD: implications for lung physiology and early origins of pulmonary hypertension.

Introduction: Pulmonary vascular remodelling in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) has detrimental consequences for lung physiology. The aim of our study was to provide a comprehensive size-based morphometric quantification of pulmonary arterial remodelling in smokers and in patients with small airway disease (SAD) or COPD. Method: Movat's pentachrome staining was performed on lung resections for 46 subjects: 12 never-smoker normal controls (NC), six normal lung function smokers (NLFS), nine patients with SAD, nine patients with mild-to-moderate COPD who were current smokers (COPD-CS) and 10 patients with mild-to-moderate COPD who were ex-smokers (COPD-ES). Following a size-based classification of pulmonary arteries, image analysis software was used to measure their number, total wall thickness, individual layer thickness and elastin percentage. Results: All pathological groups showed decreased numbers of pulmonary arteries compared with the NC group in all artery sizes. Arterial wall thickness was greater in NLFS and COPD-CS than in NC. Thickness in COPD-ES was decreased compared with COPD-CS. Intimal thickness was greater in all pathological groups in all arterial sizes than in the NC group. Medial thickness was also greater in small and medium arteries. Intimal thickness of larger arteries in COPD-CS correlated negatively to forced expiratory volume in 1 s/forced vital capacity (FVC) % and forced expiratory flow at 25-75% of FVC. Elastin deposition in small arteries was greatest in COPD-CS. Intimal elastin deposition had a more negative correlation with intimal thickness in NLFS and SAD than in COPD-CS. Conclusion: Smoking, SAD and mild-to-moderate COPD are associated with pruning and a decrease in the number of pulmonary arteries, increased wall thickness and variable elastin deposition. These changes were associated with worse airway obstruction.

Targeting eosinophils in chronic respiratory diseases using nanotechnology-based drug delivery.

Asthma, COPD, COVID-19, EGPA, Lung cancer, and Pneumonia are major chronic respiratory diseases (or CRDs) affecting millions worldwide and account for substantial morbidity and mortality. These CRDs are irreversible diseases that affect different parts of the respiratory system, imposing a considerable burden on different socio-economic classes. All these CRDs have been linked to increased eosinophils in the lungs. Eosinophils are essential immune mediators that contribute to tissue homeostasis and the pathophysiology of various diseases. Interestingly, elevated eosinophil level is associated with cellular processes that regulate airway hyperresponsiveness, airway remodeling, mucus hypersecretion, and inflammation in the lung. Therefore, eosinophil is considered the therapeutic target in eosinophil-mediated lung diseases. Although, conventional medicines like antibiotics, anti-inflammatory drugs, and bronchodilators are available to prevent CRDs. But the development of resistance to these therapeutic agents after long-term usage remains a challenge. However, progressive development in nanotechnology has unveiled the targeted nanocarrier approach that can significantly improve the pharmacokinetics of a therapeutic drug. The potential of the nanocarrier system can be specifically targeted on eosinophils and their associated components to obtain promising results in the pharmacotherapy of CRDs. This review intends to provide knowledge about eosinophils and their role in CRDs. Moreover, it also discusses nanocarrier drug delivery systems for the targeted treatment of CRDs.