Pharmacokinetics, radiation dosimetry, acute toxicity and automated synthesis of [18F]AmBF3-TATE.

INTRODUCTION: [18F]AmBF3-TATE is a somatostatin agonist that selectively binds to somatostatin receptor subtype 2 (SSTR2). For clinical translation, pharmacokinetics, radiation dosimetry, and acute toxicity of [18F]AmBF3-TATE were assessed with good laboratory practice (GLP) standards. METHODS: ICR mice were intravenously administered 0.8-2.0 MBq of [18F]AmBF3-TATE, with one group pre-injected with 100 µg of [19F]AmBF3-TATE 30 min before radiopharmaceutical administration to assess uptake specificity. The mice were euthanized at 0.5, 1, 2, or 4 h post-injection (p.i.). Blood and tissues were collected, weighed, and counted on a gamma counter to determine percentage injected dose per gram (%ID/g). Dosimetry was calculated based on biodistribution data using the mouse and human phantoms included in OLINDA. Acute toxicity was assessed in Sprague-Dawley rats at the dose of 0.742 mg/kg [19F]AmBF3-TATE, with a 14-day observation/recovery period. Blood chemistry parameters, gross, and histopathology were evaluated. Body weight change and food consumption were monitored. The production of [18F]AmBF3-TATE was automated on a Trasis AllinOne synthesis module. RESULTS: [18F]AmBF3-TATE was cleared through the renal and hepatobiliary pathway. At 1 h p.i., the pancreas (F, 15.7 ± 3.72 and M 14.3 ± 1.61 %ID/g), stomach (F, 15.3 ± 3.63 and M, 19.0 ± 3.49 %ID/g), and lungs (F, 9.26 ± 2.24 and M, 6.17 ± 6.04 %ID/g) were the organs with the highest specific uptake. Pre-injection with [19F]AmBF3-TATE significantly reduced pancreatic uptake (F, 0.13 ± 0.03 and M, 0.18 ± 0.09 %ID/g) at 1 h p.i. For dosimetry extrapolated to the average adult human, the bladder (0.027-0.030 mGy/MBq), pancreas (0.018-0.028 mGy/MBq), and lungs (0.006-0.013 mGy/MBq) are expected to receive the highest doses. No test-item related effects were observed upon evaluation of clinical observations, body weights, food consumption, clinical pathology, gross pathology, and histopathology for acute toxicity. [18F]AmBF3-TATE was produced at activity yields of 15.6 ± 4.59 GBq, average molar activity of 435 ± 162 GBq/µmol, and radiochemical purity of 98.0 ± 1.73% with the automated synthesizer. CONCLUSION: [18F]AmBF3-TATE binds specifically to SSTR2. At 1000× clinical dose, [19F]AmBF3-TATE was well tolerated with no treatment-related adverse effects.

Characterization of a liposomal copper(II)-quercetin formulation suitable for parenteral use.

Quercetin (3,3',4',5,7-pentahydroxyflavone) is a naturally derived flavonoid that is commonly found in fruits and vegetables. There is mounting evidence to suggest that quercetin has potential anticancer effects and appears to interact synergistically when used in combination with approved chemotherapeutic agents such as irinotecan and cisplatin. Unfortunately, quercetin has shown limited clinical utility, partly due to low bioavailability related to its poor aqueous solutions (< 10 µg/mL). In this study, liposomal formulations of quercetin were developed by exploiting quercetin's ability to bind copper. Quercetin powder was added directly to pre-formed copper-containing liposomes (2-distearoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DSPC) and cholesterol (CHOL) (55:45 M ratio)). As a function of time and temperature, the formation of copper-quercetin was measured. Using this methodology, a final quercetin-to-lipid (mol:mol) ratio of 0.2 was achievable and solutions containing quercetin at concentrations of > 5 mg/mL were attained, representing at least a > 100-fold increase in apparent solubility. The resulting formulation was suitable for intravenous dosing with no overt toxicities when administered at doses of 50 mg/kg in mice. Pharmacokinetic studies demonstrated that the copper-quercetin formulations had an AUC0-24H of 8382.1 µg h/mL when administered to mice at 50 mg/kg. These studies suggested that quercetin (not copper-quercetin) dissociates from the liposomes after administration. The resulting formulation is suitable for further development and also serves as a proof-of-concept for formulating other flavonoids and flavonoid-like compounds. Given that quercetin exhibits an IC50 of >10 µM when tested against cancer cell lines, we believe that the utility of this novel quercetin formulation for cancer indications will ultimately be as a component of a combination product.

Liposomal OTS964, a TOPK inhibitor: a simple method to estimate OTS964 association with liposomes that relies on enhanced OTS964 fluorescence when bound to albumin.

OTS964 is an inhibitor of T-lymphokine-activated killer cell-originated protein kinase (TOPK), a protein kinase important for mitosis and highly expressed in ovarian and lung cancers. This compound demonstrated potent anti-proliferative activity in a panel of cell lines positive for TOPK; however, when administered to mouse xenograft models, adverse hematopoietic toxicities were observed. To overcome this problem, OTS964 was encapsulated into liposomes and a liposomal formulation of OTS964 is now considered a lead candidate for clinical development. To support clinical development of this formulation, it is critically important to define assays that can easily distinguish between free and liposomal OTS964. Here, we develop a new assay to determine liposomal OTS964 encapsulation (percentage of drug associated with the liposomes) and OTS964 that is dissociated from the liposomes (percentage of drug released from liposomes) by monitoring the enhanced OTS964 fluorescence after its binding to albumin. The optical properties of OTS964 were investigated and three absorbance peaks were identified (235 nm, 291 nm, and 352 nm). Fluorescence was observed at 350 nm (excitation) and 470 nm (emission). Interestingly, the fluorescence of OTS964 increased 18-fold in the presence of serum proteins and more specifically albumin. This phenomenon was used to discriminate between the amounts of drug associated with the liposomes or released from the liposomes. Controls consisting of liposomal OTS964 permeabilized with saponins or octyl glucopyranoside served to confirm that drug release could be monitored by albumin-associated increases in fluorescence. The OTS964 liposomal formulation proved to be very stable with less than 10% release after 4 days in phosphate-buffered saline at 37 °C. The quantity of drug associated with the liposomal surface but not inside the liposomes could also be estimated using this approach. These studies present a novel approach to characterize liposomal release of OTS964, in real time and in a non-invasive manner while acquiring additional information about the spatial distribution of liposomal drug.

The involvement of insulin-like growth factor 2 binding protein 3 (IMP3) in pancreatic cancer cell migration, invasion, and adhesion.

BACKGROUND: Over-expression of insulin-like growth factor 2 mRNA binding protein 3 (IMP3) is correlated with poor prognosis in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC). Previous studies examining other cancer types have implicated IMP3 in the regulation of several cellular functions that are characteristic of tumour cells. However, the role of this oncofetal protein in PDAC progression remained unclear. METHODS: Using siRNA, we examined the effect of IMP3 inhibition on the motility, invasive ability, and matrix adhesion of PDAC cells. In addition, we also evaluated the expression of cytoskeleton-associated genes following IMP depletion. RESULTS: Knockdown of IMP3 significantly decreased the motility, invasion, and extracellular matrix adhesion of select PDAC cells in vitro. In addition, IMP3-depleted cells exhibited lower levels of CD44 protein and KIF11 mRNA. Moreover, we also observed a reduction in downstream RhoA signaling following IMP3 knockdown, indicating that IMP3 modulates the levels of proteins involved in cytoskeletal organization. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that IMP3 facilitates PDAC progression by enhancing the pro-metastatic behaviour of tumour cells.

Irinophore C™, a lipid nanoparticle formulation of irinotecan, abrogates the gastrointestinal effects of irinotecan in a rat model of clinical toxicities.

Irinotecan is a water-soluble camptothecin derivative with clinical activity against colorectal and small cell lung cancers and is currently a standard of care therapeutic in the treatment of colorectal cancer in combination with 5-fluorouracil. One of the major clinical issues limiting the use of irinotecan is gastrointestinal toxicity manifested as life-threatening diarrhea which is reported in up to 45% of treated patients. The studies summarized here tested, in a rat model of irinotecan-associated gastro-intestinal toxicity, whether a lipid nanoparticle formulation of irinotecan, Irinophore C™, mitigated early-onset or late-onset diarrhea when given at doses equivalent to unformulated irinotecan that engenders both early- and late-onset diarrhea. Specifically, rats administered intravenously on two consecutive days with unformulated irinotecan at 170 mg/kg then 160 mg/kg experienced transient early-onset diarrhea after each administration and then experienced significant late-onset diarrhea peaking 4 days after treatment. Irinophore C™ given at the identical dose and schedule did not elicit either early- or late-onset diarrhea in any animals. When Irinophore C™ was combined with 5-fluorouracil there was also no early- or late-onset diarrhea observed. Histopathological analysis of the gastro-intestinal tract confirmed that the effects associated with irinotecan treatment were absent in rats given Irinophore C™ at the identical dose. Pharmacokinetic analysis demonstrated significantly higher systemic concentrations of irinotecan in rats given the nanoparticle formulation compared to those given unformulated irinotecan. These results demonstrate that the Irinophore C™ formulation is significantly less toxic than irinotecan, used either as a single agent or in combination with 5-fluorouracil, in a rat model of irinotecan-induced gastrointestinal toxicity.

Lipid-based nanoformulation of irinotecan: dual mechanism of action allows for combination chemo/angiogenic therapy.

A number of studies have outlined the antiangiogenic effects of cytotoxic agents when administered frequently at low doses. These studies suggest that the effect of the cytotoxic agent is on the vasculature within the tumor and it is assumed that there is little or negligible cytotoxicity. Liposomal drug delivery systems have the ability to provide a dual mechanism of activity where tumor accumulation can deliver high local concentrations of the drug at the site of action with concomitant slow release of the drug from carriers in the blood compartment that results in antivascular effects, similar to that achieved when dosing frequently at low levels. Although this dual mechanism of activity may be linked to other lipid nanoparticle formulations of anticancer drugs, this article summarizes the evidence supporting direct (cytotoxic) and indirect (antivascular) actions of a liposomal formulation of irinotecan.

Targeting tumor hypoxia: suppression of breast tumor growth and metastasis by novel carbonic anhydrase IX inhibitors.

Carbonic anhydrase IX (CAIX) is a hypoxia and HIF-1-inducible protein that regulates intra- and extracellular pH under hypoxic conditions and promotes tumor cell survival and invasion in hypoxic microenvironments. Interrogation of 3,630 human breast cancers provided definitive evidence of CAIX as an independent poor prognostic biomarker for distant metastases and survival. shRNA-mediated depletion of CAIX expression in 4T1 mouse metastatic breast cancer cells capable of inducing CAIX in hypoxia resulted in regression of orthotopic mammary tumors and inhibition of spontaneous lung metastasis formation. Stable depletion of CAIX in MDA-MB-231 human breast cancer xenografts also resulted in attenuation of primary tumor growth. CAIX depletion in the 4T1 cells led to caspase-independent cell death and reversal of extracellular acidosis under hypoxic conditions in vitro. Treatment of mice harboring CAIX-positive 4T1 mammary tumors with novel CAIX-specific small molecule inhibitors that mimicked the effects of CAIX depletion in vitro resulted in significant inhibition of tumor growth and metastasis formation in both spontaneous and experimental models of metastasis, without inhibitory effects on CAIX-negative tumors. Similar inhibitory effects on primary tumor growth were observed in mice harboring orthotopic tumors comprised of lung metatstatic MDA-MB-231 LM2-4(Luc+) cells. Our findings show that CAIX is vital for growth and metastasis of hypoxic breast tumors and is a specific, targetable biomarker for breast cancer metastasis.

Comparison of bifunctional chelates for (64)Cu antibody imaging.

PURPOSE: Improved bifunctional chelates (BFCs) are needed to facilitate efficient (64)Cu radiolabeling of monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) under mild conditions and to yield stable, target-specific agents. The utility of two novel BFCs, 1-Oxa-4,7,10-triazacyclododecane-5-S-(4-isothiocyanatobenzyl)-4,7,10-triacetic acid (p-SCN-Bn-Oxo-DO3A) and 3,6,9,15-tetraazabicyclo[9.3.1]pentadeca-1(15),11,13-triene-4-S-(4-isothiocyanatobenzyl)-3,6,9-triacetic acid (p-SCN-Bn-PCTA), for mAb imaging with (64)Cu were compared to the commonly used S-2-(4-isothiocyanatobenzyl)-1,4,7,10-tetraazacyclododecane-tetraacetic acid (p-SCN-Bn-DOTA). METHODS: The BFCs were conjugated to trastuzumab, which targets the HER2/neu receptor. (64)Cu radiolabeling of the conjugates was optimized. Receptor binding was analyzed using flow cytometry and radioassays. Finally, PET imaging and biodistribution studies were done in mice bearing either HER2/neu-positive or HER2/neu-negative tumors. RESULTS: (64)Cu-Oxo-DO3A- and PCTA-trastuzumab were prepared at room temperature in >95% radiochemical yield (RCY) in <30 min, compared to only 88% RCY after 2 h for the preparation of (64)Cu-DOTA-trastuzumab under the same conditions. Cell studies confirmed that the immunoreactivity of the mAb was retained for each of the bioconjugates. In vivo studies showed that (64)Cu-Oxo-DO3A- and PCTA-trastuzumab had higher uptake than the (64)Cu-DOTA-trastuzumab at 24 h in HER2/neu-positive tumors, resulting in higher tumor to background ratios and better tumor images. By 40 h all three of the (64)Cu-BFC-trastuzumab conjugates allowed for clear visualization of the HER2/neu-positive tumors but not the negative control tumor. CONCLUSION: The antibody conjugates of PCTA and Oxo-DO3A were shown to have superior (64)Cu radiolabeling efficiency and stability compared to the analogous DOTA conjugate. In addition, (64)Cu-PCTA and Oxo-DO3A antibody conjugates may facilitate earlier imaging with greater target to background ratios than the analogous (64)Cu-DOTA antibody conjugates.

QLT0267, a small molecule inhibitor targeting integrin-linked kinase (ILK), and docetaxel can combine to produce synergistic interactions linked to enhanced cytotoxicity, reductions in P-AKT levels, altered F-actin architecture and improved treatment outcomes in an orthotopic breast cancer model.

INTRODUCTION: Substantial preclinical evidence has indicated that inhibition of integrin linked-kinase (ILK) correlates with cytotoxic/cytostatic cellular effects, delayed tumor growth in animal models of cancer, and inhibition of angiogenesis. Widely anticipated to represent a very promising therapeutic target in several cancer indications, it is increasingly evident that optimal therapeutic benefits obtained using ILK targeting strategies will only be achieved in combination settings. The purpose of this study was to investigate the therapeutic potential of the ILK small molecule inhibitor, QLT0267 (267), alone or in combination with chemotherapies commonly used to treat breast cancer patients. METHODS: A single end-point metabolic assay was used as an initial screen for 267 interactions with selected chemotherapeutic agents. These in vitro assays were completed with seven breast cancer cell lines including several which over-expressed human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (Her2). One agent, docetaxel (Dt), consistently produced synergistic interactions when combined with 267. Dt/267 interactions were further characterized by measuring therapeutic endpoints linked to phosphorylated protein kinase B (P-AKT) suppression, inhibition of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) secretion and changes in cytoarchitecture. In vivo efficacy studies were completed in mice bearing orthotopic xenografts where tumor growth was assessed by bioluminescence and calliper methods. RESULTS: The combination of 267 and Dt resulted in increased cytotoxic activity, as determined using an assay of metabolic activity. Combinations of cisplatin, doxorubicin, vinorelbine, paclitaxel, and trastuzumab produced antagonistic interactions. Further endpoint analysis in cell lines with low Her2 levels revealed that the 267/Dt combinations resulted in: a three-fold decrease in concentration (dose) of 267 required to achieve 50% inhibition of P-AKT; and a dramatic disruption of normal filamentous-actin cellular architecture. In contrast to Her2-positive cell lines, three-fold higher concentrations of 267 were required to achieve 50% inhibition of P-AKT when the drug was used in combination with Dt. In vivo studies focusing on low Her2-expressing breast cancer cells (LCC6) implanted orthotopically demonstrated that treatment with 267/Dt engendered improved therapeutic effects when compared with mice treated with either agent alone. CONCLUSIONS: The findings indicate that the 267/Dt drug combination confers increased (synergistic) therapeutic efficacy towards human breast cancer cells that express low levels of Her2.

Conditional deletion of insulin-like growth factor-I receptor in prostate epithelium.

Insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I) is a polypeptide hormone that can influence growth, differentiation, and survival of cells expressing the cognate type 1 receptor (IGF-IR). To better understand cell autonomous IGF-IR signaling in the epithelial compartment of the prostate gland, we generated a conditional (Cre/loxP) prostate-specific IGF-IR knockout mouse model. In contrast to epidemiologic studies that established a correlation between elevated serum IGF-I and the risk of developing prostate cancer, we show that abrogation of IGF-IR expression in the dorsal and lateral prostate could activate extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 signaling and cause cell autonomous proliferation and hyperplasia. Moreover, persistent loss of IGF-IR expression in dorsal and ventral lobes induced p53-regulated apoptosis and cellular senescence rescue programs, predicting that titration of IGF-IR signaling might facilitate growth of tumors with compromised p53 activity. Therefore, we crossed the mice carrying the prostate-specific IGF-IR knockout alleles into the transgenic adenocarcinoma of the mouse prostate model that is driven, in part, by T antigen-mediated functional inactivation of p53. Consistent with our prediction, prostate epithelial-specific deletion of IGF-IR accelerated the emergence of aggressive prostate cancer when p53 activity was compromised. Collectively, these data support a critical role for IGF-IR signaling in prostate tumorigenesis and identify an important IGF-IR-dependent growth control mechanism.

Vasculature-targeted tumor necrosis factor-alpha increases the therapeutic index of doxorubicin against prostate cancer.

BACKGROUND: Poor penetration and uneven distribution of doxorubicin in tumors limits the efficacy of this drug in patients with prostate cancer (PC). Aim of the study was to investigate whether pre-treatment with NGR-TNF, a tumor necrosis factor-alpha derivative able to target tumor vessels and alter vessel permeability, increases the penetration and the efficacy of doxorubicin in pre-clinical models of PC. METHODS: Wild type C57BL/6 mice bearing androgen-independent TRAMP-C1 PC and transgenic adenocarcinoma of the mouse prostate (TRAMP) mice, which spontaneously develop PC and metastasis, were treated with repeated cycles of doxorubicin, administered either alone or following NGR-TNF. Tumor growth and drug uptake by cancer cells was evaluated. RESULTS: Doxorubicin as a single agent blocked the growth of TRAMP-C1 cells in vitro but not in vivo. Pre-treatment of mice bearing subcutaneous TRAMP-C1 tumors with NGR-TNF favored doxorubicin penetration into the tumor mass, and in both TRAMP-C1 and TRAMP models significantly delayed tumor growth without increasing drug-related toxicity. CONCLUSIONS: Pre-treatment with NGR-TNF significantly expanded the therapeutic index of doxorubicin in mouse models of hormone-dependent and -independent PC.

Utility of formaldehyde cross-linking and mass spectrometry in the study of protein-protein interactions.

For decades, formaldehyde has been routinely used to cross-link proteins in cells, tissue, and in some instances, even entire organisms. Due to its small size, formaldehyde can readily permeate cell walls and membranes, resulting in efficient cross-linking, i.e. the formation of covalent bonds between proteins, DNA, and other reactive molecules. Indeed, formaldehyde cross-linking is an instrumental component of many mainstream analytical/cell biology techniques including chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) of protein-DNA complexes found in nuclei; immunohistological analysis of protein expression and localization within cells, tissues, and organs; and mass spectrometry (MS)-compatible silver-staining methodologies used to visualize low abundance proteins in polyacrylamide gels. However, despite its exquisite suitability for use in the analysis of protein environments within cells, formaldehyde has yet to be commonly employed in the directed analysis of protein-protein interactions and cellular networks. The general purpose of this article is to discuss recent advancements in the use of formaldehyde cross-linking in combination with MS-based methodologies. Key advantages and limitations to the use of formaldehyde over other cross-linkers and technologies currently used to study protein-protein interactions are highlighted, and formaldehyde-based experimental approaches that are proving very promising in their ability to accurately and efficiently identify novel protein-protein and multiprotein interaction complexes are presented.

Akt phosphorylates the Y-box binding protein 1 at Ser102 located in the cold shock domain and affects the anchorage-independent growth of breast cancer cells.

Akt/PKB is a serine/threonine kinase that promotes tumor cell growth by phosphorylating transcription factors and cell cycle proteins. There is particular interest in finding tumor-specific substrates for Akt to understand how this protein functions in cancer and to provide new avenues for therapeutic targeting. Our laboratory sought to identify novel Akt substrates that are expressed in breast cancer. In this study, we determined that activated Akt is positively correlated with the protein expression of the transcription/translation factor Y-box binding protein-1 (YB-1) in primary breast cancer by screening tumor tissue microarrays. We therefore questioned whether Akt and YB-1 might be functionally linked. Herein, we illustrate that activated Akt binds to and phosphorylates the YB-1 cold shock domain at Ser102. We then addressed the functional significance of disrupting Ser102 by mutating it to Ala102. Following the stable expression of Flag:YB-1 and Flag:YB-1 (Ala102) in MCF-7 cells, we observed that disruption of the Akt phosphorylation site on YB-1 suppressed tumor cell growth in soft agar and in monolayer. This correlated with an inhibition of nuclear translocation by the YB-1(Ala102) mutant. In conclusion, YB-1 is a new Akt substrate and disruption of this specific site inhibits tumor cell growth.

Conditional deletion of Rb causes early stage prostate cancer.

Prostate cancer remains the second leading cause of cancer-related death for men in the United States. Mutations in tumor suppressor genes including retinoblastoma (Rb), p53, and PTEN have been linked to the development of prostate cancer in man and mouse models, and loss of heterozygosity of the Rb locus has been observed in up to 60% of clinical cases. In this study we demonstrate that conditional somatic deletion of even a single Rb allele in the epithelial cells of the mouse prostate causes focal hyperplasia, thereby establishing a causal relationship between Rb loss and development of early stage prostate cancer. As a consequence of Rb ablation we observed increased expression of E2F target genes and a concomitant increase in proliferation in the epithelial compartment. However, by 52 weeks of age these lesions had not become malignant and represent an early stage of the disease. Nevertheless, the multifocal nature of the phenotype in the mice closely resembled multifocality of clinical disease. Taken together, our data demonstrated that loss of pRB-mediated cell cycle control directly caused the initiation of proliferative prostate disease but was insufficient to cause malignancy. Establishment of this early initiation model will aid efforts to thoroughly characterize early prostate disease as well as the elucidation of molecular mechanisms that cooperate with Rb loss to facilitate progression and metastasis.

MULTIPLE ORIGINS OF GENDER-ASSOCIATED MITOCHONDRIAL DNA LINEAGES IN BIVALVES (MOLLUSCA: BIVALVIA).

Previous studies have shown that marine mussels (genus Mytilus) and a freshwater mussel (Pyganodon grandis) contain two distinct gender-associated mitotypes, which is a characteristic feature of the phenomenon of doubly uniparental inheritance (DUI) of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA). Here we present evidence for the presence of distinct male (M) and female (F) mitotypes in three other bivalve species, the mytilid Geukensia demissa, and the unionid species P. fragilis and Fusconaia flava. Nucleotide sequences of a segment of the COI gene from the M and F mitotypes from each of the three mytilid species (M. edulis, M. trossulus, G. demissa) and three unionid species (P. grandis, P. fragilis, F. flava) were used for phylogenetic analysis. The analysis suggests three independent origins of M and F mitotypes for the six species examined; one for the three unionid species, one for the two Mytilus species, and one for Geukensia. The first of these F/M divergence events, while of uncertain age, predates the divergence of the two unionid genera and is likely older than either of the two F/M divergence events in the mytilid taxa. The most parsimonious explanation of multiple F/M divergence events is that they represent independent origins of DUI. Another possibility is that, in a given taxon, an F or M mitotype assumes the role of the opposite mitotype (by virtue of a mechanism that remains to be clarified) and subsequently was fixed within its new gender. The fixation of a mtDNA lineage derived from a mitotype of switched function would reset the divergence of the gender-associated lineages to zero, thereby mimicking a de novo split of F and M lineages from a preexisting mtDNA genome that was not gender specific. Further broad-scale taxonomic studies of the occurrence of distinct M and F mitotypes may allow for the evaluation of the latter hypothesis.