Automated Scanning Probe Tip State Classification without Machine Learning.

The manual identification and in situ correction of the state of the scanning probe tip is one of the most time-consuming and tedious processes in atomic-resolution scanning probe microscopy. This is due to the random nature of the probe tip on the atomic level, and the requirement for a human operator to compare the probe quality via manual inspection of the topographical images after any change in the probe. Previous attempts to automate the classification of the scanning probe state have focused on the use of machine learning techniques, but the training of these models relies on large, labeled data sets for each surface being studied. These data sets are extremely time-consuming to create and are not always available, especially when considering a new substrate or adsorbate system. In this paper, we show that the problem of tip classification from a topographical image can be solved by using only a single image of the surface along with a small amount of prior knowledge of the appearance of the system in question with a method utilizing template matching (TM). We find that by using these TM methods, comparable accuracy and precision can be achieved to values obtained with the use of machine learning. We demonstrate the efficacy of this technique by training a machine learning-based classifier and comparing the classifications with the TM classifier for two prototypical silicon-based surfaces. We also apply the TM classifier to a number of other systems where supervised machine learning-based training was not possible due to the nature of the training data sets. Finally, the applicability of the TM method to surfaces used in the literature, which have been classified using machine learning-based methods, is considered.

Precise determination of molecular adsorption geometries by room temperature non-contact atomic force microscopy.

High resolution force measurements of molecules on surfaces, in non-contact atomic force microscopy, are often only performed at cryogenic temperatures, due to needing a highly stable system, and a passivated probe tip (typically via CO-functionalisation). Here we show a reliable protocol for acquiring three-dimensional force map data over both single organic molecules and assembled islands of molecules, at room temperature. Isolated cobalt phthalocyanine and islands of C60 are characterised with submolecular resolution, on a passivated silicon substrate (B:Si(111)-[Formula: see text]). Geometries of cobalt phthalocyanine are determined to a ~ 10 pm accuracy. For the C60, the protocol is sufficiently robust that areas spanning 10 nm × 10 nm are mapped, despite the difficulties of room temperature operation. These results provide a proof-of-concept for gathering high-resolution three-dimensional force maps of networks of complex, non-planar molecules on surfaces, in conditions more analogous to real-world application.

Intramolecular Force Mapping at Room Temperature.

Acquisition of dense, three-dimensional, force fields with intramolecular resolution via noncontact atomic force microscopy (NC-AFM) has yielded enormous progress in our ability to characterize molecular and two-dimensional materials at the atomic scale. To date, intramolecular force mapping has been performed exclusively at cryogenic temperatures, due to the stability afforded by low temperature operation, and as the carbon monoxide functionalization of the metallic scanning probe tip, normally required for submolecular resolution, is only stable at low temperature. In this paper we show that high-resolution, three-dimensional force mapping of a single organic molecule is possible even at room temperature. The physical limitations of room temperature operation are overcome using semiconducting materials to inhibit molecular diffusion and create robust tip apexes, while challenges due to thermal drift are overcome with atom tracking based feedforward correction. Three-dimensional force maps comparable in spatial and force resolution to those acquired at low temperature are demonstrated, permitting a quantitative analysis of the adsorption induced changes in the geometry of the molecule at the picometer level.

Cyclic Single Atom Vertical Manipulation on a Nonmetallic Surface.

Motivated by the quest for experimental procedures capable of controlled manipulation of single atoms on surfaces, we set up a computational strategy that explores the cyclical vertical manipulation of a broad set of single atoms on the GaAs(110) surface. First-principles simulations of atomic force microscope tip-sample interactions were performed considering families of GaAs and Au-terminated tip apexes with varying crystalline termination. We identified a subset of tips capable of both picking up and depositing an adatom (Ga, As, Al, and Au) any number of times via a modify-restore cycle that "resets" the apex of the scanning probe to its original structure at the end of each cycle. Manipulation becomes successful within a certain window of lateral and vertical tip distances that are observed to be different for extracting and depositing each atom. A practical experimental protocol of special utility for potential cyclical manipulation of single atoms on a nonmetallic surface is proposed.

Chemical shielding of H2O and HF encapsulated inside a C60 cage.

Molecular surgery provides the opportunity to study relatively large molecules encapsulated within a fullerene cage. Here we determine the location of an H2O molecule isolated within an adsorbed buckminsterfullerene cage, and compare this to the intrafullerene position of HF. Using normal incidence X-ray standing wave (NIXSW) analysis, coupled with density functional theory and molecular dynamics simulations, we show that both H2O and HF are located at an off-centre position within the fullerene cage, caused by substantial intra-cage electrostatic fields generated by surface adsorption of the fullerene. The atomistic and electronic structure simulations also reveal significant internal rotational motion consistent with the NIXSW data. Despite this substantial intra-cage interaction, we find that neither HF or H2O contribute to the endofullerene frontier orbitals, confirming the chemical isolation of the encapsulated molecules. We also show that our experimental NIXSW measurements and theoretical data are best described by a mixed adsorption site model.

On-surface chemical reactions characterised by ultra-high resolution scanning probe microscopy.

In the last decade it has become possible to resolve the geometric structure of organic molecules with intramolecular resolution using high resolution scanning probe microscopy (SPM), and specifically using the subset of SPM known as noncontact atomic force microscopy (ncAFM). In world leading groups it has become routine not only to perform sub-molecular imaging of the chemical, electronic, and electrostatic properties of single molecules, but also to use this technique to track complex on-surface chemical reactions, investigate novel reaction products, and even synthesise new molecular structures one bond at a time. These developments represent the cutting edge of characterisation at the single chemical bond level, and have revolutionised our understanding of surface-based chemical processes.

Modelling of 'sub-atomic' contrast resulting from back-bonding on Si(111)-7×7.

It has recently been shown that 'sub-atomic' contrast can be observed during NC-AFM imaging of the Si(111)-7×7 substrate with a passivated tip, resulting in triangular shaped atoms [Sweetman et al. Nano Lett. 2014, 14, 2265]. The symmetry of the features, and the well-established nature of the dangling bond structure of the silicon adatom means that in this instance the contrast cannot arise from the orbital structure of the atoms, and it was suggested by simple symmetry arguments that the contrast could only arise from the backbonding symmetry of the surface adatoms. However, no modelling of the system has been performed in order to understand the precise origin of the contrast. In this paper we provide a detailed explanation for 'sub-atomic' contrast observed on Si(111)-7×7 using a simple model based on Lennard-Jones potentials, coupled with a flexible tip, as proposed by Hapala et al. [Phys. Rev. B 2014, 90, 085421] in the context of interpreting sub-molecular contrast. Our results show a striking similarity to experimental results, and demonstrate how 'sub-atomic' contrast can arise from a flexible tip exploring an asymmetric potential created due to the positioning of the surrounding surface atoms.

Visualizing the orientational dependence of an intermolecular potential.

Scanning probe microscopy can now be used to map the properties of single molecules with intramolecular precision by functionalization of the apex of the scanning probe tip with a single atom or molecule. Here we report on the mapping of the three-dimensional potential between fullerene (C60) molecules in different relative orientations, with sub-Angstrom resolution, using dynamic force microscopy (DFM). We introduce a visualization method which is capable of directly imaging the variation in equilibrium binding energy of different molecular orientations. We model the interaction using both a simple approach based around analytical Lennard-Jones potentials, and with dispersion-force-corrected density functional theory (DFT), and show that the positional variation in the binding energy between the molecules is dominated by the onset of repulsive interactions. Our modelling suggests that variations in the dispersion interaction are masked by repulsive interactions even at displacements significantly larger than the equilibrium intermolecular separation.

Nano-contact microscopy of supracrystals.

BACKGROUND: Highly ordered three-dimensional colloidal crystals (supracrystals) comprised of 7.4 nm diameter Au nanocrystals (with a 5% size dispersion) have been imaged and analysed using a combination of scanning tunnelling microscopy and dynamic force microscopy. RESULTS: By exploring the evolution of both the force and tunnel current with respect to tip-sample separation, we arrive at the surprising finding that single nanocrystal resolution is readily obtained in tunnelling microscopy images acquired more than 1 nm into the repulsive (i.e., positive force) regime of the probe-nanocrystal interaction potential. Constant height force microscopy has been used to map tip-sample interactions in this regime, revealing inhomogeneities which arise from the convolution of the tip structure with the ligand distribution at the nanocrystal surface. CONCLUSION: Our combined STM-AFM measurements show that the contrast mechanism underpinning high resolution imaging of nanoparticle supracrystals involves a form of nanoscale contact imaging, rather than the through-vacuum tunnelling which underpins traditional tunnelling microscopy and spectroscopy.

Critical assessment of the evidence for striped nanoparticles.

There is now a significant body of literature which reports that stripes form in the ligand shell of suitably functionalised Au nanoparticles. This stripe morphology has been proposed to strongly affect the physicochemical and biochemical properties of the particles. We critique the published evidence for striped nanoparticles in detail, with a particular focus on the interpretation of scanning tunnelling microscopy (STM) data (as this is the only technique which ostensibly provides direct evidence for the presence of stripes). Through a combination of an exhaustive re-analysis of the original data, in addition to new experimental measurements of a simple control sample comprising entirely unfunctionalised particles, we show that all of the STM evidence for striped nanoparticles published to date can instead be explained by a combination of well-known instrumental artefacts, or by issues with data acquisition/analysis protocols. We also critically re-examine the evidence for the presence of ligand stripes which has been claimed to have been found from transmission electron microscopy, nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, small angle neutron scattering experiments, and computer simulations. Although these data can indeed be interpreted in terms of stripe formation, we show that the reported results can alternatively be explained as arising from a combination of instrumental artefacts and inadequate data analysis techniques.

Uncertainties in forces extracted from non-contact atomic force microscopy measurements by fitting of long-range background forces.

In principle, non-contact atomic force microscopy (NC-AFM) now readily allows for the measurement of forces with sub-nanonewton precision on the atomic scale. In practice, however, the extraction of the often desired 'short-range' force from the experimental observable (frequency shift) is often far from trivial. In most cases there is a significant contribution to the total tip-sample force due to non-site-specific van der Waals and electrostatic forces. Typically, the contribution from these forces must be removed before the results of the experiment can be successfully interpreted, often by comparison to density functional theory calculations. In this paper we compare the 'on-minus-off' method for extracting site-specific forces to a commonly used extrapolation method modelling the long-range forces using a simple power law. By examining the behaviour of the fitting method in the case of two radically different interaction potentials we show that significant uncertainties in the final extracted forces may result from use of the extrapolation method.

Unique determination of "subatomic" contrast by imaging covalent backbonding.

The origin of so-called "subatomic" resolution in dynamic force microscopy has remained controversial since its first observation in 2000. A number of detailed experimental and theoretical studies have identified different possible physicochemical mechanisms potentially giving rise to subatomic contrast. In this study, for the first time we are able to assign the origin of a specific instance of subatomic contrast as being due to the back bonding of a surface atom in the tip-sample junction.

Effect of the tip state during qPlus noncontact atomic force microscopy of Si(100) at 5 K: Probing the probe.

BACKGROUND: Noncontact atomic force microscopy (NC-AFM) now regularly produces atomic-resolution images on a wide range of surfaces, and has demonstrated the capability for atomic manipulation solely using chemical forces. Nonetheless, the role of the tip apex in both imaging and manipulation remains poorly understood and is an active area of research both experimentally and theoretically. Recent work employing specially functionalised tips has provided additional impetus to elucidating the role of the tip apex in the observed contrast. RESULTS: We present an analysis of the influence of the tip apex during imaging of the Si(100) substrate in ultra-high vacuum (UHV) at 5 K using a qPlus sensor for noncontact atomic force microscopy (NC-AFM). Data demonstrating stable imaging with a range of tip apexes, each with a characteristic imaging signature, have been acquired. By imaging at close to zero applied bias we eliminate the influence of tunnel current on the force between tip and surface, and also the tunnel-current-induced excitation of silicon dimers, which is a key issue in scanning probe studies of Si(100). CONCLUSION: A wide range of novel imaging mechanisms are demonstrated on the Si(100) surface, which can only be explained by variations in the precise structural configuration at the apex of the tip. Such images provide a valuable resource for theoreticians working on the development of realistic tip structures for NC-AFM simulations. Force spectroscopy measurements show that the tip termination critically affects both the short-range force and dissipated energy.

Measuring Si-C60 chemical forces via single molecule spectroscopy.

We measure the short-range chemical force between a silicon-terminated tip and individual adsorbed C(60) molecules using frequency modulation atomic force microscopy. The interaction with an adsorbed fullerene is sufficiently strong to drive significant atomic rearrangement of tip structures.

Toggling bistable atoms via mechanical switching of bond angle.

We reversibly switch the state of a bistable atom by direct mechanical manipulation of bond angle using a dynamic force microscope. Individual buckled dimers at the Si(100) surface are flipped via the formation of a single covalent bond, actuating the smallest conceivable in-plane toggle switch (two atoms) via chemical force alone. The response of a given dimer to a flip event depends critically on both the local and nonlocal environment of the target atom-an important consideration for future atomic scale fabrication strategies.