Anxiety predicts math achievement in kindergarten children.

Introduction: Math anxiety (MA) is an academic anxiety about learning, doing, and evaluating mathematics, usually studied in school populations and adults. However, MA likely has its origins before children go to school. For example, studies have shown that general anxiety (GA) for everyday events is less separable from MA in primary than in early secondary school. This suggests that GA may be a precursor of MA. For this reason, here, we have examined whether GA is already associated with math achievement at the end of kindergarten. Methods: We tested 488 Hungarian kindergarten children aged 5.7 to 6.9 years (55% girls) and analyzed the effect of GA, sex, and family SES on math achievement in kindergarten children. Results: Strikingly, confirming results from primary school children, we found that GA negatively correlated with math achievement already in this preschool population. Higher GA levels had a stronger negative effect on girls' than boys' math achievement. However, there were no significant sex differences in math achievement in kindergarten. Additionally, family socioeconomic status was the strongest predictor of math achievement. Discussion: We speculate that high GA in preschool is a plausible early precursor of later high MA. Early interventions could aim to control GA levels before children start formal schooling.

A large-scale study on the prevalence of math anxiety in Qatar.

BACKGROUND: Math anxiety (MA) is a worldwide appearing academic anxiety that can affect student mental health and deter students from math and science-related career choices. METHOD: Using the Arabic version of the Modified-Abbreviated Math Anxiety Scale (m-AMAS), the prevalence of MA was investigated in a very large sample of students (N = 10093) from grades 7 to 12 in Qatar. RESULTS: The results showed a better fit to the original two-factor model of the m-AMAS (learning MA and Evaluation MA) than to a single-factor solution. This two-factor model was also confirmed in each grade. Notably, the distribution of MA scores was right-skewed, especially for learning MA. Using the inter-quartiles ranges, norms for MA were provided: A score of ≤16 indicates low MA whereas a score of ≥30 identifies high MA. Previous studies conducted in Western countries defined high math-anxious students as those who score above the 90th percentile corresponding to a score of 30 on the m-AMAS. Using this cut-off criterion, the current study found that one-fifth of students in Qatar were highly math-anxious, with a higher proportion of females than males. We also calculated the percentage of participants selecting each response category for each questionnaire item. Results showed that attending a long math class was the context that elicited the highest levels of learning MA. In contrast, having an unexpected math test was the situation that triggered the highest levels of evaluation MA. CONCLUSION: The prevalence of MA might vary across different cultures.

Maths anxiety and subjective perception of control, value and success expectancy in mathematics.

Mathematics anxiety (MA) is an academic anxiety related to doing, learning and testing mathematics. MA can negatively affect mathematics performance, motivation and maths-heavy science and technology-related career choices. Previous data suggest that subjective perceptions and interpretations of students are key in the genesis of MA. Here, based on expectancy-value and control-value theory, we aimed to identify potential, theoretically based subjective factors probably key to understanding MA. We analysed data from 151 745 fifteen-year-old children from 65 'countries and economies' from the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) 2012 dataset. Subjective self-perceptions had a stronger relationship with MA than maths achievement. We found that higher MA was associated with lower perceived control over maths activities and lower subjective expectation of success. Surprisingly, children with higher subjective valuation of maths had higher MA for similar levels of subjective control and success expectancy in maths. Results offer an improved understanding of potential antecedents of MA and suggest that effective interventions could be based on gradual confidence building in maths. These could primarily draw on a deeper understanding of the subject improving subjective success expectancy and feeling of control over maths activities. Cultural variation in findings is discussed.

Published correlational effect sizes in social and developmental psychology.

The distribution of effect sizes may offer insights about the research done and reported in a scientific field. We have evaluated 12 412 manually collected correlation effect sizes (Sample 1) and 31 157 computer-extracted correlation effect sizes (Sample 2) published in journals focused on social or developmental psychology. Sample 1 consisted of 243 studies from six journals published in 2010 and 2019. Sample 2 consisted of 5012 papers published in 10 journals between 2010 and 2019. The 25th, 50th and 75th effect size percentiles were 0.08, 0.17 and 0.33, and 0.17, 0.31 and 0.52 in Samples 1 and 2, respectively. Sample 2 percentiles were probably larger because Sample 2 only included effect sizes from the text but not from tables. In text authors may have emphasized larger correlations. Large sample sizes were associated with smaller reported correlations. In Sample 1 about 70% of studies specified a directional hypothesis. In 2010 no papers had power calculations, while in 2019 14% of papers had power calculations. These data offer empirical insights into the distribution of reported correlations and may inform the interpretation of effect sizes. They also demonstrate the importance of computation of statistical power and highlight potential reporting bias.

Dyslexia treatment studies: A systematic review and suggestions on testing treatment efficacy with small effects and small samples.

Poor response to treatment is a defining characteristic of reading disorder. In the present systematic review and meta-analysis, we found that the overall average effect size for treatment efficacy was modest, with a mean standardized difference of 0.38. Small true effects, combined with the difficulty to recruit large samples, seriously challenge researchers planning to test treatment efficacy in dyslexia and potentially in other learning disorders. Nonetheless, most published studies claim effectiveness, generally based on liberal use of multiple testing. This inflates the risk that most statistically significant results are associated with overestimated effect sizes. To enhance power, we propose the strategic use of repeated measurements with mixed-effects modelling. This novel approach would enable us to estimate both individual parameters and population-level effects more reliably. We suggest assessing a reading outcome not once, but three times, at pre-treatment and three times at post-treatment. Such design would require only modest additional efforts compared to current practices. Based on this, we performed ad hoc a priori design analyses via simulation studies. Results showed that using the novel design may allow one to reach adequate power even with low sample sizes of 30-40 participants (i.e., 15-20 participants per group) for a typical effect size of d = 0.38. Nonetheless, more conservative assumptions are warranted for various reasons, including a high risk of publication bias in the extant literature. Our considerations can be extended to intervention studies of other types of neurodevelopmental disorders.

No evidence for a core deficit in developmental dyscalculia or mathematical learning disabilities.

BACKGROUND: Two hypotheses were tested regarding the characteristics of children with mathematical learning disabilities (MLD): (a) that children with MLD would have a 'core deficit' in basic number processing skills; and (b) that children with MLD would be at the end of a developmental continuum and have impairments in many cognitive skills. METHODS: From a large sample (N = 1,303) of typically developing children, we selected a group definable as having MLD. The children were given measures of basic number processing and domain-general constructs. Differences between the observed sample and a simulated population were estimated using Cohen's d and Bayes factors. Receiver operating characteristic curves were plotted, and the area under the curve was computed to ascertain the diagnostic power of measures. RESULTS: Results suggest that the differences between the MLD and control group can be defined along with general characteristics of the population rather than assuming single or multiple 'core deficits'. None of the measures of interest exceeded the diagnostic power that could be derived via simulation from the dimensional characteristics of the general population. CONCLUSIONS: There is no evidence for core deficit(s) in MLD. We suggest that future research should focus on representative samples of typical populations and on carefully tested clinical samples confirming to the criteria of international diagnostic manuals. Clinical diagnoses require that MLD is persistent and resistant to intervention, so studies would deliver results less exposed to measurement fluctuations. Uniform diagnostic criteria would also allow for the easy cross-study comparison of samples overcoming a serious limitation of the current literature.

Correction: Empirical assessment of published effect sizes and power in the recent cognitive neuroscience and psychology literature.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.2000797.].

The Abbreviated Science Anxiety Scale: Psychometric properties, gender differences and associations with test anxiety, general anxiety and science achievement.

Science anxiety refers to students' negative emotions about learning science. Across two studies, we investigated the psychometric properties of the newly developed Abbreviated Science Anxiety Scale (ASAS), which was adapted from the modified Abbreviated Math Anxiety Scale (m-AMAS) (Carey E., 2017). Using a sample of students in grades 7 to 10 (N = 710), Study 1 reported a two-factor structure of the ASAS (learning science anxiety and science evaluation anxiety) and negative associations between the ASAS factors and science achievement. Study 2 replicated this two-factor model in students in grades 11 and 12 (N = 362) and found that students in the "Arts" track were more anxious about science than those in "Sciences" track. Both studies consistently reported positive inter-correlations between the ASAS factors, with good internal reliabilities and modest meaningful associations with test anxiety and general anxiety, suggesting that science anxiety might be a distinct construct. Further, female students had higher science anxiety (especially science evaluation anxiety) than male students, even when test anxiety and general anxiety were considered in models. In summary, the ASAS is a brief, valid, and reliable instrument that can be used to guide and improve science education.

Sample size evolution in neuroimaging research: An evaluation of highly-cited studies (1990-2012) and of latest practices (2017-2018) in high-impact journals.

We evaluated 1038 of the most cited structural and functional (fMRI) magnetic resonance brain imaging papers (1161 studies) published during 1990-2012 and 270 papers (300 studies) published in top neuroimaging journals in 2017 and 2018. 96% of highly cited experimental fMRI studies had a single group of participants and these studies had median sample size of 12, highly cited clinical fMRI studies (with patient participants) had median sample size of 14.5, and clinical structural MRI studies had median sample size of 50. The sample size of highly cited experimental fMRI studies increased at a rate of 0.74 participant/year and this rate of increase was commensurate with the median sample sizes of neuroimaging studies published in top neuroimaging journals in 2017 (23 participants) and 2018 (24 participants). Only 4 of 131 papers in 2017 and 5 of 142 papers in 2018 had pre-study power calculations, most for single t-tests and correlations. Only 14% of highly cited papers reported the number of excluded participants whereas 49% of papers with their own data in 2017 and 2018 reported excluded participants. Publishers and funders should require pre-study power calculations necessitating the specification of effect sizes. The field should agree on universally required reporting standards. Reporting formats should be standardized so that crucial study parameters could be identified unequivocally.

Predictors of mathematics in primary school: Magnitude comparison, verbal and spatial working memory measures.

We determined the relative importance of the so-called approximate number system (ANS), symbolic number comparison (SNC) and verbal and spatial short-term and working memory (WM) capacity for mathematics achievement in 1,254 Grade 2, 4 and 6 children. The large sample size assured high power and low false report probability and allowed us to determine effect sizes precisely. We used reading decoding as a control outcome measure to test whether findings were specific to mathematics. Bayesian analysis allowed us to provide support for both null and alternative hypotheses. We found very weak zero-order correlations between ANS measures and math achievement. These correlations were not specific to mathematics, became non-significant once intelligence was considered and ANS measures were not selected as predictors of math by regression models. In contrast, overall SNC accuracy and spatial WM measures were reliable and mostly specific predictors of math achievement. Verbal short-term and WM and SNC reaction time were predictors of both reading and math achievement. We conclude that ANS tasks are not suitable as measures of math development in school-age populations. In contrast, all other cognitive functions we studied are promising markers of mathematics development.

Physical similarity or numerical representation counts in same-different, numerical comparison, physical comparison, and priming tasks?

Recent studies have highlighted the fact that some tasks used to study symbolic number representations are confounded by judgments about physical similarity. Here, we investigated whether the contribution of physical similarity and numerical representation differed in the often-used symbolic same-different, numerical comparison, physical comparison, and priming tasks. Experiment 1 showed that subjective physical similarity was the best predictor of participants' performance in the same-different task, regardless of simultaneous or sequential presentation. Furthermore, the contribution of subjective physical similarity was larger in a simultaneous presentation than in a sequential presentation. Experiment 2 showed that only numerical representation was involved in numerical comparison. Experiment 3 showed that both subjective physical similarity and numerical representation contributed to participants' physical comparison performance. Finally, only numerical representation contributed to participants' performance in a priming task as revealed by Experiment 4. Taken together, the contribution of physical similarity and numerical representation depends on task demands. Performance primarily seems to rely on numerical properties in tasks that require explicit quantitative comparison judgments (physical or numerical), while physical stimulus properties exert an effect in the same-different task.

The underlying structure of visuospatial working memory in children with mathematical learning disability.

This study examined visual, spatial-sequential, and spatial-simultaneous working memory (WM) performance in children with mathematical learning disability (MLD) and low mathematics achievement (LMA) compared with typically developing (TD) children. Groups were matched on reading decoding performance and verbal intelligence. Besides statistical significance testing, we used bootstrap confidence interval estimation and computed effect sizes. Children were individually tested with six computerized tasks, two for each visuospatial WM subcomponent. We found that both MLD and LMA children had low visuospatial WM function in both spatial-simultaneous and spatial-sequential WM tasks. The WM deficit was most expressed in MLD children and less in LMA children. This suggests that WM scores are distributed along a continuum with TD children achieving top scores and MLD children achieving low scores. The theoretical and practical significance of findings is discussed. Statement of Contribution What is already known on this subject? Working memory plays an important role in mathematical achievement. Children with mathematical learning disability (MLD) usually have low working memory resources. Conflicting results have been reported concerning the role of VSWM in individuals with MLD. What the present study adds? Children with different degree of impairment in math achievement and typically developing children were tested. Visual, spatial-sequential, and spatial-simultaneous working memory tasks were examined. Only spatial-sequential and spatial-simultaneous working memory tasks discriminated the two impairments groups.

Cognitive and Neural Correlates of Mathematical Giftedness in Adults and Children: A Review.

Most mathematical cognition research has focused on understanding normal adult function and child development as well as mildly and moderately impaired mathematical skill, often labeled developmental dyscalculia and/or mathematical learning disability. In contrast, much less research is available on cognitive and neural correlates of gifted/excellent mathematical knowledge in adults and children. In order to facilitate further inquiry into this area, here we review 40 available studies, which examine the cognitive and neural basis of gifted mathematics. Studies associated a large number of cognitive factors with gifted mathematics, with spatial processing and working memory being the most frequently identified contributors. However, the current literature suffers from low statistical power, which most probably contributes to variability across findings. Other major shortcomings include failing to establish domain and stimulus specificity of findings, suggesting causation without sufficient evidence and the frequent use of invalid backward inference in neuro-imaging studies. Future studies must increase statistical power and neuro-imaging studies must rely on supporting behavioral data when interpreting findings. Studies should investigate the factors shown to correlate with math giftedness in a more specific manner and determine exactly how individual factors may contribute to gifted math ability.

Stress, Time Pressure, Strategy Selection and Math Anxiety in Mathematics: A Review of the Literature.

We review how stress induction, time pressure manipulations and math anxiety can interfere with or modulate selection of problem-solving strategies (henceforth "strategy selection") in arithmetical tasks. Nineteen relevant articles were identified, which contain references to strategy selection and time limit (or time manipulations), with some also discussing emotional aspects in mathematical outcomes. Few of these take cognitive processes such as working memory or executive functions into consideration. We conclude that due to the sparsity of available literature our questions can only be partially answered and currently there is not much evidence of clear associations. We identify major gaps in knowledge and raise a series of open questions to guide further research.

When Null Hypothesis Significance Testing Is Unsuitable for Research: A Reassessment.

Null hypothesis significance testing (NHST) has several shortcomings that are likely contributing factors behind the widely debated replication crisis of (cognitive) neuroscience, psychology, and biomedical science in general. We review these shortcomings and suggest that, after sustained negative experience, NHST should no longer be the default, dominant statistical practice of all biomedical and psychological research. If theoretical predictions are weak we should not rely on all or nothing hypothesis tests. Different inferential methods may be most suitable for different types of research questions. Whenever researchers use NHST they should justify its use, and publish pre-study power calculations and effect sizes, including negative findings. Hypothesis-testing studies should be pre-registered and optimally raw data published. The current statistics lite educational approach for students that has sustained the widespread, spurious use of NHST should be phased out.

Empirical assessment of published effect sizes and power in the recent cognitive neuroscience and psychology literature.

We have empirically assessed the distribution of published effect sizes and estimated power by analyzing 26,841 statistical records from 3,801 cognitive neuroscience and psychology papers published recently. The reported median effect size was D = 0.93 (interquartile range: 0.64-1.46) for nominally statistically significant results and D = 0.24 (0.11-0.42) for nonsignificant results. Median power to detect small, medium, and large effects was 0.12, 0.44, and 0.73, reflecting no improvement through the past half-century. This is so because sample sizes have remained small. Assuming similar true effect sizes in both disciplines, power was lower in cognitive neuroscience than in psychology. Journal impact factors negatively correlated with power. Assuming a realistic range of prior probabilities for null hypotheses, false report probability is likely to exceed 50% for the whole literature. In light of our findings, the recently reported low replication success in psychology is realistic, and worse performance may be expected for cognitive neuroscience.

Differentiating anxiety forms and their role in academic performance from primary to secondary school.

INTRODUCTION: Individuals with high levels of mathematics anxiety are more likely to have other forms of anxiety, such as general anxiety and test anxiety, and tend to have some math performance decrement compared to those with low math anxiety. However, it is unclear how the anxiety forms cluster in individuals, or how the presence of other anxiety forms influences the relationship between math anxiety and math performance. METHOD: We measured math anxiety, test anxiety, general anxiety and mathematics and reading performance in 1720 UK students (year 4, aged 8-9, and years 7 and 8, aged 11-13). We conducted latent profile analysis of students' anxiety scores in order to examine the developmental change in anxiety profiles, the demographics of each anxiety profile and the relationship between profiles and academic performance. RESULTS: Anxiety profiles appeared to change in specificity between the two age groups studied. Only in the older students did clusters emerge with specifically elevated general anxiety or academic anxiety (test and math anxiety). Our findings suggest that boys are slightly more likely than girls to have elevated academic anxieties relative to their general anxiety. Year 7/8 students with specifically academic anxiety show lower academic performance than those who also have elevated general anxiety. CONCLUSIONS: There may be a developmental change in the specificity of anxiety and gender seems to play a strong role in determining one's anxiety profile. The anxiety profiles present in our year 7/8 sample, and their relationships with math performance, suggest a bidirectional relationship between math anxiety and math performance.

The Modified Abbreviated Math Anxiety Scale: A Valid and Reliable Instrument for Use with Children.

Mathematics anxiety (MA) can be observed in children from primary school age into the teenage years and adulthood, but many MA rating scales are only suitable for use with adults or older adolescents. We have adapted one such rating scale, the Abbreviated Math Anxiety Scale (AMAS), to be used with British children aged 8-13. In this study, we assess the scale's reliability, factor structure, and divergent validity. The modified AMAS (mAMAS) was administered to a very large (n = 1746) cohort of British children and adolescents. This large sample size meant that as well as conducting confirmatory factor analysis on the scale itself, we were also able to split the sample to conduct exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis of items from the mAMAS alongside items from child test anxiety and general anxiety rating scales. Factor analysis of the mAMAS confirmed that it has the same underlying factor structure as the original AMAS, with subscales measuring anxiety about Learning and Evaluation in math. Furthermore, both exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis of the mAMAS alongside scales measuring test anxiety and general anxiety showed that mAMAS items cluster onto one factor (perceived to represent MA). The mAMAS provides a valid and reliable scale for measuring MA in children and adolescents, from a younger age than is possible with the original AMAS. Results from this study also suggest that MA is truly a unique construct, separate from both test anxiety and general anxiety, even in childhood.

Visuospatial and verbal memory in mental arithmetic.

Working memory allows complex information to be remembered and manipulated over short periods of time. Correlations between working memory and mathematics achievement have been shown across the lifespan. However, only a few studies have examined the potentially distinct contributions of domain-specific visuospatial and verbal working memory resources in mental arithmetic computation. Here we aimed to fill this gap in a series of six experiments pairing addition and subtraction tasks with verbal and visuospatial working memory and interference tasks. In general, we found higher levels of interference between mental arithmetic and visuospatial working memory tasks than between mental arithmetic and verbal working memory tasks. Additionally, we found that interference that matched the working memory domain of the task (e.g., verbal task with verbal interference) lowered working memory performance more than mismatched interference (verbal task with visuospatial interference). Findings suggest that mental arithmetic relies on domain-specific working memory resources.

Examining the Link between Math Anxiety and Math Performance in Colombian Students / Examinando la Relación entre la Ansiedad Matemática y el Desempeño Matemático en Estudiantes Colombianos / Examinando a Relação entre a Ansiedade Matemática e o Desempenho Matemático em Estudantes Colombianos

This study examines the link between math anxietyand math performance in a group of Colombian students. A total of 296 students between 8 and 16 years of age took part in this study. Analyses by gender and grade were conducted, while controlling for other types of anxiety (i.e., general and test anxiety). In line with that reported in other countries, a negative correlation was found between performance in mathematics and math anxiety. Importantly, this trend was stronger in girls than in boys. Given the limited number of studies exploring the relationship between math anxiety and math performance in Latin America and, particularly, in Colombia, this study fills an important gap in the literature. The results are particularly relevant in view of the poor performance of Colombian students in mathematics, revealed by the most recent PISA reports.

El presente estudio examina la relación entre la ansiedad matemática y el desempeño matemático, en un grupo de estudiantes colombianos. Un total de 296 estudiantes entre 8 y 16 años de edad participaron en la investigación. Se realizaron análisis por género y grado escolar, controlando por otros tipos de ansiedad (i.e., general y relacionada con exámenes). En línea con lo reportado en otros países, se encontró una correlación negativa entre el desempeño en matemática y la ansiedad matemática. Aún más importante, esta tendencia fue mayor en las niñas que en los niños. Dados los pocos estudios que han explorado la relación entre ansiedad matemática y desempeño matemático en Latinoamérica y, particularmente, en Colombia, este estudio llena un vacío importante. Los resultados son particularmente relevantes a la luz del pobre desempeño de los estudiantes colombianos en matemáticas, revelado recientemente por las pruebas PISA.

O presente estudo examina a relação entre a ansiedade matemática e o desempenho matemático num grupo de estudantes colombianos. Um total de 296 estudantes entre 8 e 16 anos participaram da pesquisa. Realizaram-se análise por gênero e grau escolar, controlando por outros tipos de ansiedade (por exemplo, geral e relacionada com exames). Em consonância com o relatado por outros países, constatou-se uma correlação negativa entre o desempenho em matemática e a ansiedade matemática. Ainda mais importante, essa tendência foi maior nas meninas do que nos meninos. Tendo em vista os poucos estudos que exploram a relação entre ansiedade matemática e desempenho matemático na América Latina e, particularmente, na Colômbia, este estudo preenche um vazio importante. Os resultados são relevantes à luz do pobre desempenho dos estudantes colombianos em matemáticas, revelado recentemente pelas provas do Programa Internacional de Avaliação de Estudantes (Pisa, por sua sigla em inglês).