Social Media Posts from Friends during Late Adolescence as Predictors of Young Adult Physical Health.

Although an increasing body of literature has linked social experiences to physical health, research has yet to consider how specific aspects of social experiences taking place on social media during late adolescence may predict future physical health outcomes. This study thus examined qualities of social media posts received from peers at age 21 as predictors of participants' physical health (e.g., Interleukin-6 (inflammation), sleep problems, problems with physical functioning, and BMI) at age 28. Participants included 138 youth (59 men and 79 women); 57% of participants identified as White, 30% as Black/African American, and 13% as from other or mixed racial/ethnic groups. Posts from friends and participants at age 21 characterized by social ties predicted lower levels of future physical health problems, whereas socially inappropriate "faux pas" posts that deviated from peer norms by friends predicted higher levels of physical health problems at age 28. These associations were found after accounting for factors typically associated with physical health outcomes, including participants' baseline social competence, internalizing and externalizing symptoms, alcohol use, observed physical attractiveness, and history of prior hospitalizations. The results of this study suggest the importance of both achieving social integration with peers online and adhering to peer norms in the online domain as key predictors of future physical health.

Parental Autonomy Restricting Behaviors During Adolescence as Predictors of Dependency on Parents in Emerging Adulthood.

Although one goal of the use of autonomy restricting parenting behavior is to keep teens psychologically dependent on the parent, research has yet to examine whether such behavior actually predicts later parental dependency. Thus, the present longitudinal, multi-method study investigates at which points across adolescence this behavior predicts parental dependency in emerging adulthood, and whether this association differs based on which parent uses psychological control within a non-clinical and racially, ethnically, and socioeconomically diverse sample. Teens' (N = 184) parents completed measures of perceived parental psychological control exhibited toward their teens during early (age 13) and late adolescence (age 18), as well as their teens' parental dependency and functional independence during emerging adulthood (age 22). Additionally, interactions between teens and their parents during early and late adolescence were observed and coded to measure autonomy and relatedness restriction. Results indicated that autonomy restricting parenting behaviors were more predictive of parental dependence when used in early adolescence as compared to late adolescence, and revealed several cross-parent effects. Developmental implications for understanding parent-child relationships are discussed.

Parent and Romantic Partner Behaviors during Adolescence as Predictors of Young Adult Positive Personality, Relational Competence, and Functional Independence.

Experiences with parents and romantic partners during adolescence are theorized to have long-term effects on youth development. However, little research has empirically examined the relative contributions of experiences in each type of relationship at different points during adolescence to positive development in young adulthood. The goal of the present study was to predict relative changes in youth positive personality characteristics, relational competence, and functional independence during young adulthood from specific behaviors experienced from parents and romantic partners during early and late adolescence. A diverse community sample of 147 individuals (59 males, 88 females) from the southeastern United States was repeatedly assessed across a 14-year period from age 13 to age 27. As hypothesized, parental acceptance and successful parental positive influence behavior toward adolescents at age 13 predicted relative increases in positive personality traits (e.g., agreeableness, conscientiousness, emotional stability) between ages 23 and 27. These same parental behaviors measured at age 18 were less robust predictors of key outcomes relative to similar qualities of romantic relationships. Instead, romantic behaviors of toleration and appreciation at age 18 predicted relative increases in functional independence and relational competence between ages 23 and 27 (e.g., attachment closeness, reliable alliance, nurturance, and functional independence). Results suggest that parents' successful efforts to positively influence and accept their children during early adolescence may lay a foundation for future positive personality growth, and that similar positive behaviors experienced in late adolescent romantic relationships may help prepare youth to develop broader supportive social relationships and independence skills in young adulthood.

Interactions between anxiety subtypes, personality characteristics, and emotional regulation skills as predictors of future work outcomes.

INTRODUCTION: This study examined long-term predictive links between different types of anxiety in late adolescence and work-related outcomes in young adulthood. The presence of adaptive personality traits and positive emotion regulation and coping skills were hypothesized to buffer these associations, reducing the negative effects of anxiety on future work outcomes. METHODS: Hypotheses were tested using multi-reporter data from a community sample of 184 youth in the United States followed from ages 17-30. Trait anxiety, anxious arousal, rejection sensitivity, and implicit rejection were each examined in late adolescence as predictors of work-related ambition, work performance, job satisfaction, and career satisfaction in young adulthood. Conscientiousness, grit, emotion regulation (ER) and coping skills were examined as potential moderators. RESULTS: Although trait anxiety was the only anxiety variable directly predictive of work outcomes in regression analyses, personality variables and ER skills interacted with multiple types of anxiety to predict work outcomes. Interestingly, findings reflected a pattern in which a combination of greater conscientiousness and greater anxiety, and greater ER skills and greater anxiety, predicted more positive work outcomes. CONCLUSIONS: These findings not only suggest that the development of traits such as conscientiousness and ER skills may be helpful for youth with higher levels of anxiety, but also that higher levels of anxiety, when appropriately balanced by other qualities, may be adaptive for promoting positive career development for some youth.

Adolescent Peer Relationship Qualities as Predictors of Long-Term Romantic Life Satisfaction.

Adolescent-era predictors of adult romantic life satisfaction were examined in a multimethod, prospective, longitudinal study of 165 adolescents followed from ages 13 to 30. Progress in key developmental tasks, including establishing positive expectations and capacity for assertiveness with peers at age 13, social competence at ages 15 and 16, and ability to form and maintain strong close friendships at ages 16-18, predicted romantic life satisfaction at ages 27-30. In contrast, several qualities linked to romantic experience during adolescence (i.e., sexual and dating experience, physical attractiveness) were unrelated to future satisfaction. Results suggest a central role of competence in nonromantic friendships as preparation for successful management of the future demands of adult romantic life.

Online Social Interactions Predict Academic and Emotional Adjustment in the Transition to University.

We investigated the developmental implications of online social interactions among 590 youth transitioning to university. We observed friends' posts on participants' Facebook pages, and considered attributes of friends' posts used to indicate positive and negative relationship quality in face-to-face interactions. After statistical control of beginning-of-year functioning and participants' Facebook content, Facebook friends' deviant content posts (swearing; illegal/sexualized activities) predicted participants' lower grade point average, Facebook friends' posts indicating connection to participants predicted participants' lower psychopathology, and Facebook friends' verbal aggression posts predicted participants' lower institutional attachment, by the end of the year. Negative effects of friends' posts were strongest for participants who were disliked by peers face to face. The online context may uniquely influence youth adjustment in conjunction with face-to-face relationships.

Learning to cope with anxiety: Long-term links from adolescence to adult career satisfaction.

This study examined the long-term effect of anxiety on career satisfaction for young adults in the United States. The abilities to positively cope with stress and function competently as an adult were examined as potential moderators of this link, and adolescent developmental precursors of these abilities were also investigated. Analyses revealed a negative association between anxiety at age 21 and career satisfaction at age 27. However, this association was ameliorated for youth with better coping skills and functional competence at age 24. Autonomy and relatedness behaviors with best friends and mothers were examined as potential predictors of these moderators, with positive autonomy and relatedness from friends at age 13 emerging as the sole predictor of these skills. Results suggest that although anxiety may inhibit career satisfaction for many youth, positive coping and adult functional competence skills may allow anxious individuals to achieve career satisfaction. Moreover, these skills may be promoted through peer relationships in early adolescence.

Adolescent support seeking as a path to adult functional independence.

The potential importance of depending on others during adolescence to establish independence in young adulthood was examined across adolescence to emerging adulthood. Participants included 184 teens (46% male; 42% non-White), their mothers, best friends, and romantic partners, assessed at ages 13-14, 18, 21-22, and 25. Path analyses showed that associations were both partner and age specific: markers of independence were predicted by participants' efforts to seek support from mothers at age 13, best friends at 18, and romantic partners at 21. More important, analyses controlled for support seeking from these partners at other ages, as well as for other potentially confounding variables including attachment security, scholastic/job competence, and physical attractiveness over time. Moreover, analyses suggested the transfer of support seeking behavior from mothers to best friends to romantic partners over time based on support given by the previous partner at an earlier age. (PsycINFO Database Record

Supportive Romantic Relationships as Predictors of Resilience Against Early Adolescent Maternal Negativity.

Negativity in parent-child relationships during adolescence has been viewed as a risk factor for teens' future personal and interpersonal adjustment. This study examined support from romantic partners and close friends during late adolescence as protective against maternal negativity experienced during early adolescence. A combination of observational, self-report, and peer-report measures were obtained from a community sample of 97 youth (58 % female), their mothers, closest friends, and romantic partners assessed at ages 13, 18, and 20. Moderating effects suggested a protective effect of romantic support against maternal negativity across a variety of psychosocial outcomes, including depressive symptoms, self-worth, social withdrawal, and externalizing behavior. Protective effects were found even after controlling for initial levels of outcome behavior and observed support from close friends throughout adolescence. Receiving support from a romantic partner may provide teens with new, positive ways of coping with adversity and help them avoid more serious distress that may be predicted from maternal negativity when such support is not available.

Predictions From Early Adolescent Emotional Repair Abilities to Functioning in Future Relationships.

This study examined adolescents' ability to utilize emotional repair-to actively change negative moods to more positive moods-as a predictor of the quality of their developing peer and romantic relationships over time. Utilizing observational data and partners' reports, adolescents (N = 184), their close peers, and their romantic partners were followed from ages 15-19. Adolescents with initially stronger emotional repair abilities were rated as increasingly socially competent over time, and both displayed and experienced increasingly positive interactive behaviors with close peers over time. These adolescents' romantic partners also reported more positive relationships, with enhanced communication, and fewer critical, blaming, or hostile interactions. Implications for the role of emotional repair abilities in the development of successful relationships during adolescence are discussed.

Online social communication patterns among emerging adult women with histories of childhood attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.

Little is known about adult women with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD); however, available evidence suggests that they experience social impairment. Online social networking websites such as Facebook have become endemic outlets through which emerging adults communicate with peers. No study has examined the peer interactions of emerging adults with childhood histories of ADHD in this developmentally relevant online domain. Participants in the current study were an ethnically diverse sample of 228 women, 140 of whom met diagnostic criteria for ADHD in childhood and 88 who composed a matched comparison sample. These women were assessed at 3 time points spanning 10 years (mean age = 9.6 at Wave 1, 14.1 at Wave 2, 19.6 at Wave 3). After statistical control of demographic covariates and comorbidities, childhood ADHD diagnosis predicted, by emerging adulthood, a greater stated preference for online social communication and a greater tendency to have used online methods to interact with strangers. A childhood diagnosis of ADHD also predicted observations of fewer Facebook friends and less closeness and support from Facebook friends in emerging adulthood. These associations were mediated by a composite of face-to-face peer relationship impairment during childhood and adolescence. Intriguingly, women with persistent diagnoses of ADHD from childhood to emerging adulthood differed from women with consistent comparison status in their online social communication; women with intermittent diagnoses of ADHD had scores intermediate between the other 2 groups. Results are discussed within the context of understanding the social relationships of women with childhood histories of ADHD.

Undermining Adolescent Autonomy With Parents and Peers: The Enduring Implications of Psychologically Controlling Parenting.

This study used a longitudinal, multi-method design to examine whether teens' perceptions of maternal psychological control predicted lower levels of adolescent autonomy displayed with their mothers and peers over time. Significant predictions from teens' perceptions of maternal psychological control to teens' displays of autonomy in maternal and peer relationships were found at age 16 after accounting for adolescent displays of autonomy with mothers and peers at age 13, indicating relative changes in teens' autonomy displayed with their mother and a close peer over time. Results suggest that the ability to assert one's autonomy in mid-adolescence may be influenced by maternal behavior early in adolescence, highlighting the importance of parents minimizing psychological control to facilitate autonomy development for teens.

Adolescent romance and depressive symptoms: the moderating effects of positive coping and perceived friendship competence.

Youths' ability to positively cope with negative emotions and their self-perceived friendship competence were examined as potential moderators of links between multiple aspects of romantic relationships and residualized increases in depressive symptoms from late adolescence into early adulthood. Participants included 184 teens (46% male; 42% non-White) assessed at ages 15 to 19 and 21, as well as a subsample of 62 romantic partners of participants assessed when teens were 18. Results of hierarchical linear regressions showed that positive coping served as a buffer against depressive symptoms for romantically involved adolescents and also for teens receiving more intense emotional support from their romantic partners, but not for youth whose relationship had ended and had not been replaced by a new relationship. Higher perceived friendship competence served as a buffer against depressive symptoms for youth enduring the dissolution and nonreplacement of their romantic relationship. Greater use of positive coping skills and higher perceived friendship competence may help protect adolescents from depressive symptoms in different types of romantic experiences.

Maternal and Paternal Psychological Control as Moderators of the Link between Peer Attitudes and Adolescents' Risky Sexual Behavior.

Maternal and paternal psychological control, peer attitudes, and the interaction of psychological control and peer attitudes at age 13 were examined as predictors of risky sexual behavior before age 16 in a community sample of 181 youth followed from age 13 to 16. Maternal psychological control moderated the link between peer attitudes and sexual behavior. Peer acceptance of early sex predicted greater risky sexual behaviors, but only for teens whose mothers engaged in high levels of psychological control. Paternal psychological control demonstrated the same moderating effect for girls; for boys, however, high levels of paternal control predicted risky sex regardless of peer attitudes. Results are consistent with the theory that peer influences do not replace parental influences with regard to adolescent sexual behavior; rather, parental practices continue to serve an important role either directly forecasting sexual behavior or moderating the link between peer attitudes and sexual behavior.

Inter-Parent Aggression as a Precursor to Disengagement Coping in Emerging Adulthood: The Buffering Role of Friendship Competence.

Using multi-informant data drawn from a prospective study involving 184 youth, mother perpetrated and father perpetrated partner aggression during early adolescence (age 13) was examined as a predictor of five types of disengagement coping strategies in emerging adulthood (age 21): behavioral disengagement, mental disengagement, denial, substance use, and restraint. The ability to develop close friendships, or friendship competence, was examined as a moderator of these links. Results suggest that inter-parent aggression in early adolescence can predict reliance on disengagement coping eight years later, but that friendship competence can buffer against the reliance on disengagement coping. Moreover, close friendship competence was not directly related to partner aggression by mothers or fathers, suggesting that friendship competence develops along an independent developmental track, and thus may truly serve as a buffer for young adults with a history of exposure to inter-parent aggression.

Social Networking Site Use Predicts Changes in Young Adults' Psychological Adjustment.

This study examined youths' friendships and posted pictures on social networking sites as predictors of changes in their adjustment over time. Observational, self-report, and peer report data were obtained from a community sample of 89 young adults interviewed at age 21 and again at age 22. Findings were consistent with a leveling effect for online friendships, predicting decreases in internalizing symptoms for youth with lower initial levels of social acceptance, but increases in symptoms for youth with higher initial levels over the following year. Across the entire sample, deviant behavior in posted photos predicted increases in young adults' problematic alcohol use over time. The importance of considering the interplay between online and offline social factors for predicting adjustment is discussed.

Qualities of Peer Relations on Social Networking Websites: Predictions from Negative Mother-Teen Interactions.

This study examined associations between characteristics of teenagers' relationships with their mothers and their later socializing behavior and peer relationship quality online. At age 13, teenagers and their mothers participated in an interaction in which mothers' and adolescents' behavior undermining autonomy and relatedness was observed, and indicators of teens' depressive symptoms and social anxiety were assessed. At age 20, youth self-reported on their online behaviors, youths' social networking webpages were observationally coded to assess peer relationship quality online, and symptoms of depression and social anxiety were reassessed. Results suggested that problematic mother-teen relationships were predictive of youths' later preference for online communication and greater likelihood of forming a friendship with someone met online, yet poorer quality in online relationships. Findings are discussed within a developmental framework suggesting the importance of considering youths' family interactions during early adolescence as predictors of future online socializing behavior and online interactions with peers.

Adolescent peer relationships and behavior problems predict young adults' communication on social networking websites.

This study examined online communication on social networking web pages in a longitudinal sample of 92 youths (39 male, 53 female). Participants' social and behavioral adjustment was assessed when they were ages 13-14 years and again at ages 20-22 years. At ages 20-22 years, participants' social networking website use and indicators of friendship quality on their web pages were coded by observers. Results suggested that youths who had been better adjusted at ages 13-14 years were more likely to be using social networking web pages at ages 20-22 years, after statistically controlling for age, gender, ethnicity, and parental income. Overall, youths' patterns of peer relationships, friendship quality, and behavioral adjustment at ages 13-14 years and at ages 20-22 years predicted similar qualities of interaction and problem behavior on their social networking websites at ages 20-22 years. Findings are consistent with developmental theory asserting that youths display cross-situational continuity in their social behaviors and suggest that the conceptualization of continuity may be extended into the online domain.

The Broader Context of Relational Aggression in Adolescent Romantic Relationships: Predictions from Peer Pressure and Links to Psychosocial Functioning.

The broader context of relational aggression in adolescent romantic relationships was assessed by considering the ways such aggression emerged from prior experiences of peer pressure and was linked to concurrent difficulties in psychosocial functioning. Longitudinal, multi-reporter data were obtained from 97 adolescents and their best friends at age 15 and from adolescents and their romantic partners at age 18. Teens' relational aggression and romantic partners' victimization were predicted from levels of best friends' pressuring behaviors toward teens in an observed interaction as well as from best friends' ratings of how much pressure teens experienced from their peer group. Romantic partner relational aggression and teen victimization were predicted by pressure from teens' peer group only. Adolescents' romantic relational aggression and victimization were also associated with elevated levels of depressive symptoms and increased alcohol use. Results are discussed in terms of the connection of relational aggression in romantic relationships to the broader task of establishing autonomy with peers in psychosocial development.