Nifedipine Ameliorates Cellular Differentiation Defects of Smn-Deficient Motor Neurons and Enhances Neuromuscular Transmission in SMA Mice.

In spinal muscular atrophy (SMA), mutations in or loss of the Survival Motor Neuron 1 (SMN1) gene reduce full-length SMN protein levels, which leads to the degeneration of a percentage of motor neurons. In mouse models of SMA, the development and maintenance of spinal motor neurons and the neuromuscular junction (NMJ) function are altered. Since nifedipine is known to be neuroprotective and increases neurotransmission in nerve terminals, we investigated its effects on cultured spinal cord motor neurons and motor nerve terminals of control and SMA mice. We found that application of nifedipine increased the frequency of spontaneous Ca2+ transients, growth cone size, cluster-like formations of Cav2.2 channels, and it normalized axon extension in SMA neurons in culture. At the NMJ, nifedipine significantly increased evoked and spontaneous release at low-frequency stimulation in both genotypes. High-strength stimulation revealed that nifedipine increased the size of the readily releasable pool (RRP) of vesicles in control but not SMA mice. These findings provide experimental evidence about the ability of nifedipine to prevent the appearance of developmental defects in SMA embryonic motor neurons in culture and reveal to which extent nifedipine could still increase neurotransmission at the NMJ in SMA mice under different functional demands.

A spinal muscular atrophy modifier implicates the SMN protein in SNARE complex assembly at neuromuscular synapses.

Reduced survival motor neuron (SMN) protein triggers the motor neuron disease, spinal muscular atrophy (SMA). Restoring SMN prevents disease, but it is not known how neuromuscular function is preserved. We used model mice to map and identify an Hspa8G470R synaptic chaperone variant, which suppressed SMA. Expression of the variant in the severely affected mutant mice increased lifespan >10-fold, improved motor performance, and mitigated neuromuscular pathology. Mechanistically, Hspa8G470R altered SMN2 splicing and simultaneously stimulated formation of a tripartite chaperone complex, critical for synaptic homeostasis, by augmenting its interaction with other complex members. Concomitantly, synaptic vesicular SNARE complex formation, which relies on chaperone activity for sustained neuromuscular synaptic transmission, was found perturbed in SMA mice and patient-derived motor neurons and was restored in modified mutants. Identification of the Hspa8G470R SMA modifier implicates SMN in SNARE complex assembly and casts new light on how deficiency of the ubiquitous protein causes motor neuron disease.

SMN Is Physiologically Downregulated at Wild-Type Motor Nerve Terminals but Aggregates Together with Neurofilaments in SMA Mouse Models.

Survival motor neuron (SMN) is an essential and ubiquitously expressed protein that participates in several aspects of RNA metabolism. SMN deficiency causes a devastating motor neuron disease called spinal muscular atrophy (SMA). SMN forms the core of a protein complex localized at the cytoplasm and nuclear gems and that catalyzes spliceosomal snRNP particle synthesis. In cultured motor neurons, SMN is also present in dendrites and axons, and forms part of the ribonucleoprotein transport granules implicated in mRNA trafficking and local translation. Nevertheless, the distribution, regulation, and role of SMN at the axons and presynaptic motor terminals in vivo are still unclear. By using conventional confocal microscopy and STED super-resolution nanoscopy, we found that SMN appears in the form of granules distributed along motor axons at nerve terminals. Our fluorescence in situ hybridization and electron microscopy studies also confirmed the presence of ß-actin mRNA, ribosomes, and polysomes in the presynaptic motor terminal, key elements of the protein synthesis machinery involved in local translation in this compartment. SMN granules co-localize with the microtubule-associated protein 1B (MAP1B) and neurofilaments, suggesting that the cytoskeleton participates in transporting and positioning the granules. We also found that, while SMN granules are physiologically downregulated at the presynaptic element during the period of postnatal maturation in wild-type (non-transgenic) mice, they accumulate in areas of neurofilament aggregation in SMA mice, suggesting that the high expression of SMN at the NMJ, together with the cytoskeletal defects, contribute to impairing the bi-directional traffic of proteins and organelles between the axon and the presynaptic terminal.

Functional regeneration of the murine neuromuscular synapse relies on long-lasting morphological adaptations.

BACKGROUND: In a broad variety of species, muscle contraction is controlled at the neuromuscular junction (NMJ), the peripheral synapse composed of a motor nerve terminal, a muscle specialization, and non-myelinating terminal Schwann cells. While peripheral nerve damage leads to successful NMJ reinnervation in animal models, muscle fiber reinnervation in human patients is largely inefficient. Interestingly, some hallmarks of NMJ denervation and early reinnervation in murine species, such as fragmentation and poly-innervation, are also phenotypes of aged NMJs or even of unaltered conditions in other species, including humans. We have reasoned that rather than features of NMJ decline, such cellular responses could represent synaptic adaptations to accomplish proper functional recovery. Here, we have experimentally tackled this idea through a detailed comparative study of the short- and long-term consequences of irreversible (chronic) and reversible (partial) NMJ denervation in the convenient cranial levator auris longus muscle. RESULTS: Our findings reveal that irreversible muscle denervation results in highly fragmented postsynaptic domains and marked ectopic acetylcholine receptor clustering along with significant terminal Schwann cells sprouting and progressive detachment from the NMJ. Remarkably, even though reversible nerve damage led to complete reinnervation after 11 days, we found that more than 30% of NMJs are poly-innervated and around 65% of postsynaptic domains are fragmented even 3 months after injury, whereas synaptic transmission is fully recovered two months after nerve injury. While postsynaptic stability was irreversibly decreased after chronic denervation, this parameter was only transiently affected by partial NMJ denervation. In addition, we found that a combination of morphometric analyses and postsynaptic stability determinations allows discriminating two distinct forms of NMJ fragmentation, stable-smooth and unstable-blurred, which correlate with their regeneration potential. CONCLUSIONS: Together, our data unveil that reversible nerve damage imprints a long-lasting reminiscence in the NMJ that results in the rearrangement of its cellular components. Instead of being predictive of NMJ decline, these traits may represent an efficient adaptive response for proper functional recovery. As such, these features are relevant targets to be considered in strategies aimed to restore motor function in detrimental conditions for peripheral innervation.

Presynaptic Mitochondria Communicate With Release Sites for Spatio-Temporal Regulation of Exocytosis at the Motor Nerve Terminal.

Presynaptic Ca2+ regulation is critical for accurate neurotransmitter release, vesicle reloading of release sites, and plastic changes in response to electrical activity. One of the main players in the regulation of cytosolic Ca2+ in nerve terminals is mitochondria, which control the size and spread of the Ca2+ wave during sustained electrical activity. However, the role of mitochondria in Ca2+ signaling during high-frequency short bursts of action potentials (APs) is not well known. Here, we studied spatial and temporal relationships between mitochondrial Ca2+ (mCa2+) and exocytosis by live imaging and electrophysiology in adult motor nerve terminals of transgenic mice expressing synaptophysin-pHluorin (SypHy). Our results show that hot spots of exocytosis and mitochondria are organized in subsynaptic functional regions and that mitochondria start to uptake Ca2+ after a few APs. We also show that mitochondria contribute to the regulation of the mode of fusion (synchronous and asynchronous) and the kinetics of release and replenishment of the readily releasable pool (RRP) of vesicles. We propose that mitochondria modulate the timing and reliability of neurotransmission in motor nerve terminals during brief AP trains.

Calcium is reduced in presynaptic mitochondria of motor nerve terminals during neurotransmission in SMA mice.

Spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) is an autosomal recessive degenerative motor neuron disease characterized by symmetrical muscle weakness and atrophy of limb and trunk muscles being the most severe genetic disease in children. In SMA mouse models, motor nerve terminals display neurotransmitter release reduction, endocytosis decrease and mitochondria alterations. The relationship between these changes is, however, not well understood. In the present study, we investigated whether the endocytosis impairment could be related to the functional alteration of the presynaptic mitochondria during action potential (AP) firing. To this aim, we generated a Synaptophysin-pHluorin (SypHy) transgenic mouse, crossed it with Taiwanese SMA mice, and recorded exo- and endocytosis and mitochondria Ca2+ signaling in real-time at ex vivo motor nerve terminals of Taiwanese-SypHy mice. The experiments were performed at the beginning of the motor symptoms to get an integrated view of the nerve terminal's functional state before degeneration. Our electrophysiological and live imaging results demonstrated that the mitochondria's capacity to increase matrix-free Ca2+ in SMA mice was significantly limited during nerve AP firing, except when the rate of Ca2+ entry to the cytosol was considerably reduced. These results indicate that both the mitochondrial Ca2+ signaling alterations and the secretion machinery defects are significant players in the dysfunction of the presynaptic terminal in SMA.

The Mouse Levator Auris Longus Muscle: An Amenable Model System to Study the Role of Postsynaptic Proteins to the Maintenance and Regeneration of the Neuromuscular Synapse.

The neuromuscular junction (NMJ) is the peripheral synapse that controls the coordinated movement of many organisms. The NMJ is also an archetypical model to study synaptic morphology and function. As the NMJ is the primary target of neuromuscular diseases and traumatic injuries, the establishment of suitable models to study the contribution of specific postsynaptic muscle-derived proteins on NMJ maintenance and regeneration is a permanent need. Considering the unique experimental advantages of the levator auris longus (LAL) muscle, here we present a method allowing for efficient electroporation-mediated gene transfer and subsequent detailed studies of the morphology and function of the NMJ and muscle fibers. Also, we have standardized efficient facial nerve injury protocols to analyze LAL muscle NMJ degeneration and regeneration. Our results show that the expression of a control fluorescent protein does not alter either the muscle structural organization, the apposition of the pre- and post-synaptic domains, or the functional neurotransmission parameters of the LAL muscle NMJs; in turn, the overexpression of MuSK, a major regulator of postsynaptic assembly, induces the formation of ectopic acetylcholine receptor clusters. Our NMJ denervation experiments showed complete reinnervation of LAL muscle NMJs four weeks after facial nerve injury. Together, these experimental strategies in the LAL muscle constitute effective methods to combine protein expression with accurate analyses at the levels of structure, function, and regeneration of the NMJ.

R-Roscovitine Improves Motoneuron Function in Mouse Models for Spinal Muscular Atrophy.

Neurotransmission defects and motoneuron degeneration are hallmarks of spinal muscular atrophy, a monogenetic disease caused by the deficiency of the SMN protein. In the present study, we show that systemic application of R-Roscovitine, a Cav2.1/Cav2.2 channel modifier and a cyclin-dependent kinase 5 (Cdk-5) inhibitor, significantly improved survival of SMA mice. In addition, R-Roscovitine increased Cav2.1 channel density and sizes of the motor endplates. In vitro, R-Roscovitine restored axon lengths and growth cone sizes of Smn-deficient motoneurons corresponding to enhanced spontaneous Ca2+ influx and elevated Cav2.2 channel cluster formations independent of its capability to inhibit Cdk-5. Acute application of R-Roscovitine at the neuromuscular junction significantly increased evoked neurotransmitter release, increased the frequency of spontaneous miniature potentials, and lowered the activation threshold of silent terminals. These data indicate that R-Roscovitine improves Ca2+ signaling and Ca2+ homeostasis in Smn-deficient motoneurons, which is generally crucial for motoneuron differentiation, maturation, and function.

BDNF is a mediator of glycolytic fiber-type specification in mouse skeletal muscle.

Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) influences the differentiation, plasticity, and survival of central neurons and likewise, affects the development of the neuromuscular system. Besides its neuronal origin, BDNF is also a member of the myokine family. However, the role of skeletal muscle-derived BDNF in regulating neuromuscular physiology in vivo remains unclear. Using gain- and loss-of-function animal models, we show that muscle-specific ablation of BDNF shifts the proportion of muscle fibers from type IIB to IIX, concomitant with elevated slow muscle-type gene expression. Furthermore, BDNF deletion reduces motor end plate volume without affecting neuromuscular junction (NMJ) integrity. These morphological changes are associated with slow muscle function and a greater resistance to contraction-induced fatigue. Conversely, BDNF overexpression promotes a fast muscle-type gene program and elevates glycolytic fiber number. These findings indicate that BDNF is required for fiber-type specification and provide insights into its potential modulation as a therapeutic target in muscle diseases.

HERC1 Ubiquitin Ligase Is Required for Normal Axonal Myelination in the Peripheral Nervous System.

A missense mutation in HERC1 provokes loss of cerebellar Purkinje cells, tremor, and unstable gait in tambaleante (tbl) mice. Recently, we have shown that before cerebellar degeneration takes place, the tbl mouse suffers from a reduction in the number of vesicles available for release at the neuromuscular junction (NMJ). The aim of the present work was to study to which extent the alteration in HERC1 may affect other cells in the nervous system and how this may influence the motor dysfunction observed in these mice. The functional analysis showed a consistent delay in the propagation of the action potential in mutant mice in comparison with control littermates. Morphological analyses of glial cells in motor axons revealed signs of compact myelin damage as tomacula and local hypermyelination foci. Moreover, we observed an alteration in non-myelinated terminal Schwann cells at the level of the NMJ. Additionally, we found a significant increment of phosphorylated Akt-2 in the sciatic nerve. Based on these findings, we propose a molecular model that could explain how mutated HERC1 in tbl mice affects the myelination process in the peripheral nervous system. Finally, since the myelin abnormalities found in tbl mice are histological hallmarks of neuropathic periphery diseases, tbl mutant mice could be considered as a new mouse model for this type of diseases.

Carbonic anhydrase inhibitor acetazolamide shifts synaptic vesicle recycling to a fast mode at the mouse neuromuscular junction.

Acetazolamide (AZ), a molecule frequently used to treat different neurological syndromes, is an inhibitor of the carbonic anhydrase (CA), an enzyme that regulates pH inside and outside cells. We combined fluorescent FM styryl dyes and electrophysiological techniques at ex vivo levator auris longus neuromuscular junctions (NMJs) from mice to investigate the modulation of synaptic transmission and vesicle recycling by AZ. Transmitter release was minimally affected by AZ, as evidenced by evoked and spontaneous end-plate potential measurements. However, optical evaluation with FM-styryl dyes of vesicle exocytosis elicited by 50 Hz stimuli showed a strong reduction in fluorescence loss in AZ treated NMJ, an effect that was abolished by bathing the NMJ in Hepes. The remaining dye was quenched by bromophenol, a small molecule capable of diffusing inside vesicles. Furthermore, in transgenic mice expressing Synaptophysin-pHluorin (SypHy), the fluorescence responses of motor nerve terminals to a 50 Hz train of stimuli was decrease to a 50% of controls in the presence of AZ. Immunohistochemistry experiments to evaluate the state of the Myosin light chain kinase (MLCK), an enzyme involved in vesicle recycling, demonstrated that MLCK phosphorylation was much stronger in the presence than AZ than in its absence in 50 Hz stimulated NMJs. We postulate that AZ, via cytosol acidification and activation of MLCK, shifts synaptic vesicle recycling to a fast (kiss-and-run) mode, which changes synaptic performance. These changes may contribute to the therapeutic action reported in many neurological syndromes like ataxia, epilepsy, and migraine.

Smn-Deficiency Increases the Intrinsic Excitability of Motoneurons.

During development, motoneurons experience significant changes in their size and in the number and strength of connections that they receive, which requires adaptive changes in their passive and active electrical properties. Even after reaching maturity, motoneurons continue to adjust their intrinsic excitability and synaptic activity for proper functioning of the sensorimotor circuit in accordance with physiological demands. Likewise, if some elements of the circuit become dysfunctional, the system tries to compensate for the alterations to maintain appropriate function. In Spinal Muscular Atrophy (SMA), a severe motor disease, spinal motoneurons receive less excitation from glutamatergic sensory fibers and interneurons and are electrically hyperexcitable. Currently, the origin and relationship among these alterations are not completely established. In this study, we investigated whether Survival of Motor Neuron (SMN), the ubiquitous protein defective in SMA, regulates the excitability of motoneurons before and after the establishment of the synaptic contacts. To this end, we performed patch-clamp recordings in embryonic spinal motoneurons forming complex synaptic networks in primary cultures, and in differentiated NSC-34 motoneuron-like cells in the absence of synaptic contacts. Our results show that in both conditions, Smn-deficient cells displayed lower action potential threshold, greater action potential amplitudes, and larger density of voltage-dependent sodium currents than cells with normal Smn-levels. These results indicate that Smn participates in the regulation of the cell-autonomous excitability of motoneurons at an early stage of development. This finding may contribute to a better understanding of motoneuron excitability in SMA during the development of the disease.

CSPα, a Molecular Co-chaperone Essential for Short and Long-Term Synaptic Maintenance.

Cysteine string protein α (CSPα) is a vesicle protein located in the presynaptic terminal of most synapses. CSPα is an essential molecular co-chaperone that facilitates the correct folding of proteins and the assembly of the exocytic machinery. The absence of this protein leads to altered neurotransmitter release and neurodegeneration in multiple model systems, from flies to mice. In humans, CSPα mutations are associated with the development of neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis (NCL), a neurodegenerative disease characterized by intracellular accumulation of lysosomal material. Here, we review the physiological role of CSPα and the pathology resulting from the homozygous deletion of the gene or its mutations. In addition, we investigate whether long-term moderate reduction of the protein produces motor dysfunction. We found that 1-year-old CSPα heterozygous mice display a reduced ability to sustain motor unit recruitment during repetitive stimulation, which indicates that physiological levels of CSPα are required for normal neuromuscular responses in mice and, likely, in humans.

The Active and Periactive Zone Organization and the Functional Properties of Small and Large Synapses.

The arrival of an action potential (AP) at a synaptic terminal elicits highly synchronized quanta release. Repetitive APs produce successive synaptic vesicle (SV) fusions that require management of spent SV components in the presynaptic membrane with minimum disturbance of the secretory apparatus. To this end, the synaptic machinery is structured accordingly to the strength and the range of frequencies at which each particular synapse operates. This results in variations in the number and dimension of Active Zones (AZs), amount and distribution of SVs, and probably, in the primary endocytic mechanisms they use. Understanding better how these structural differences determine the functional response in each case has been a matter of long-term interest. Here we review the structural and functional properties of three distinct types of synapses: the neuromuscular junction (NMJ; a giant, highly reliable synapse that must exocytose a large number of quanta with each stimulus to guarantee excitation of the postsynaptic cell), the hippocampal excitatory small synapse (which most often has a single release site and a relatively small pool of vesicles), and the cerebellar mossy fiber-granule cell synapse (which possesses hundreds of release sites and is able to translocate, dock and prime vesicles at high speed). We will focus on how the release apparatus is organized in each case, the relative amount of vesicular membrane that needs to be accommodated within the periAZ upon stimulation, the different mechanisms for retrieving the excess of membrane and finally, how these factors may influence the functioning of the release sites.

Synaptotagmin-2, and -1, linked to neurotransmission impairment and vulnerability in Spinal Muscular Atrophy.

Spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) is the most frequent genetic cause of infant mortality. The disease is characterized by progressive muscle weakness and paralysis of axial and proximal limb muscles. It is caused by homozygous loss or mutation of the SMN1 gene, which codes for the Survival Motor Neuron (SMN) protein. In mouse models of the disease, neurotransmitter release is greatly impaired, but the molecular mechanisms of the synaptic dysfunction and the basis of the selective muscle vulnerability are unknown. In the present study, we investigated these open questions by comparing the molecular and functional properties of nerve terminals in severely and mildly affected muscles in the SMNΔ7 mouse model. We discovered that synaptotagmin-1 (Syt1) was developmentally downregulated in nerve terminals of highly affected muscles but not in low vulnerable muscles. Additionally, the expression levels of synaptotagmin-2 (Syt2), and its interacting protein, synaptic vesicle protein 2 (SV2) B, were reduced in proportion to the degree of muscle vulnerability while other synaptic proteins, such as syntaxin-1B (Stx1B) and synaptotagmin-7 (Syt7), were not affected. Consistently with the extremely low levels of both Syt-isoforms, and SV2B, in most affected neuromuscular synapses, the functional analysis of neurotransmission revealed highly reduced evoked release, altered short-term plasticity, low release probability, and inability to modulate normally the number of functional release sites. Together, we propose that the strong reduction of Syt2 and SV2B are key factors of the functional synaptic alteration and that the physiological downregulation of Syt1 plays a determinant role in muscle vulnerability in SMA.

Syntaxin 1B is important for mouse postnatal survival and proper synaptic function at the mouse neuromuscular junctions.

STX1 is a major neuronal syntaxin protein located at the plasma membrane of the neuronal tissues. Rodent STX1 has two highly similar paralogs, STX1A and STX1B, that are thought to be functionally redundant. Interestingly, some studies have shown that the distribution patterns of STX1A and STX1B at the central and peripheral nervous systems only partially overlapped, implying that there might be differential functions between these paralogs. In the current study, we generated an STX1B knockout (KO) mouse line and studied the impact of STX1B removal in neurons of several brain regions and the neuromuscular junction (NMJ). We found that either complete removal of STX1B or selective removal of it from forebrain excitatory neurons in mice caused premature death. Autaptic hippocampal and striatal cultures derived from STX1B KO mice still maintained efficient neurotransmission compared with neurons from STX1B wild-type and heterozygous mice. Interestingly, examining high-density cerebellar cultures revealed a decrease in the spontaneous GABAergic transmission frequency, which was most likely due to a lower number of neurons in the STX1B KO cultures, suggesting that STX1B is essential for neuronal survival in vitro. Moreover, our study also demonstrated that although STX1B is dispensable for the formation of the mouse NMJ, it is required to maintain the efficiency of neurotransmission at the nerve-muscle synapse.

Morphological and functional remodelling of the neuromuscular junction by skeletal muscle PGC-1α.

The neuromuscular junction (NMJ) exhibits high morphological and functional plasticity. In the mature muscle, the relative levels of physical activity are the major determinants of NMJ function. Classically, motor neuron-mediated activation patterns of skeletal muscle have been thought of as the major drivers of NMJ plasticity and the ensuing fibre-type determination in muscle. Here we use muscle-specific transgenic animals for the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ co-activator 1α (PGC-1α) as a genetic model for trained mice to elucidate the contribution of skeletal muscle to activity-induced adaptation of the NMJ. We find that muscle-specific expression of PGC-1α promotes a remodelling of the NMJ, even in the absence of increased physical activity. Importantly, these plastic changes are not restricted to post-synaptic structures, but extended to modulation of presynaptic cell morphology and function. Therefore, our data indicate that skeletal muscle significantly contributes to the adaptation of the NMJ subsequent to physical activity.

Neurotransmitter release in motor nerve terminals of a mouse model of mild spinal muscular atrophy.

Spinal muscular atrophy is a genetic disease which severity depends on the amount of SMN protein, the product of the genes SMN1 and SMN2. Symptomatology goes from severe neuromuscular impairment leading to early death in infants to slow progressing motor deficits during adulthood. Much of the knowledge about the pathophysiology of SMA comes from studies using genetically engineered animal models of the disease. Here we investigated one of the milder models, the homozygous A2G SMA mice, in which the level of the protein is restored to almost normal levels by the addition of a mutated transgene to the severe SMN-deficient background. We examined neuromuscular function and found that calcium-dependent neurotransmitter release was significantly decreased. In addition, the amplitude of spontaneous endplate potentials was decreased, the morphology of NMJ altered, and slight changes in short-term synaptic plasticity were found. In spite of these defects, excitation contraction coupling was well preserved, possibly due to the safety factor of this synapse. These data further support that the quasi-normal restoration of SMN levels in severe cases preserves neuromuscular function, even when neurotransmitter release is significantly decreased at motor nerve terminals. Nevertheless, this deficit could represent a greater risk of motor impairment during aging or after injuries.