Medicinal plants used for treatment of malaria by indigenous communities of Tororo District, Eastern Uganda.

BACKGROUND: Malaria remains the leading cause of death in sub-Saharan Africa. Although recent developments such as malaria vaccine trials inspire optimism, the search for novel antimalarial drugs is urgently needed to control the mounting resistance of Plasmodium species to the available therapies. The present study was conducted to document ethnobotanical knowledge on the plants used to treat symptoms of malaria in Tororo district, a malaria-endemic region of Eastern Uganda. METHODS: An ethnobotanical study was carried out between February 2020 and September 2020 in 12 randomly selected villages of Tororo district. In total, 151 respondents (21 herbalists and 130 non-herbalists) were selected using multistage random sampling method. Their awareness of malaria, treatment-seeking behaviour and herbal treatment practices were obtained using semi-structured questionnaires and focus group discussions. Data were analysed using descriptive statistics, paired comparison, preference ranking and informant consensus factor. RESULTS: A total of 45 plant species belonging to 26 families and 44 genera were used in the preparation of herbal medicines for management of malaria and its symptoms. The most frequently mentioned plant species were Vernonia amygdalina, Chamaecrista nigricans, Aloe nobilis, Warburgia ugandensis, Abrus precatorius, Kedrostis foetidissima, Senna occidentalis, Azadirachta indica and Mangifera indica. Leaves (67.3%) were the most used plant part while maceration (56%) was the major method of herbal remedy preparation. Oral route was the predominant mode of administration with inconsistencies in the posology prescribed. CONCLUSION: This study showed that the identified medicinal plants in Tororo district, Uganda, are potential sources of new antimalarial drugs. This provides a basis for investigating the antimalarial efficacy, phytochemistry and toxicity of the unstudied species with high percentage use values to validate their use in the management of malaria.

Understorey Seedling Bank in Forest Areas with a Differing Period of Recovery in Mabira Central Forest Reserve, South Central Uganda.

Seedling banks are very important in forest regeneration following forest disturbances such as crop cultivation. In 2011 and 2013 the Uganda National Forestry Authority (NFA) evicted encroachers from parts of Mabira Central Forest Reserve that had been under crop cultivation for over 40 years. This gave an opportunity for the vegetation to recover. In this study, we assessed the recovery process based on seedling bank diversity, richness and density in three blocks differing in recovery time. Two disturbed blocks, the Western Block (WB) (abandoned by encroachers 1-3 years), and the Eastern Block (EB) (abandoned 4-5 years) before this study and a nearby undisturbed area (intact) were included in the study. We recorded 48 seedlings species; 37 in WB, 30 in EB and 27 in intact. Differences in species richness were not statistically significant among blocks (F2, 88 = 1.2420, p = 0.294). All seedling species found in the intact were found in the EB and WB. There were statistically significant differences in species diversity (Shannon-Wiener: F2, 88 = 5.354, p = 0.006), density (P < 0.001) and composition (ANOSIM; R = 0.55, p = 0.001) among blocks. Apart from Broussonetia papyrifera, other species contributing to the dissimilarity (Acalypha neptunica, Antiaris toxicaria, Blighia unijugata, Funtumia elastica were late succession species. Animal dispersed species dominated intact. Seed-regenerating species were found in both WB and EB, but re-sprouts were more common in EB. These results show that proximity to intact forest aids forest recovery, even for areas with long-term cultivation history.

Potential of Zanthoxylum leprieurii as a source of active compounds against drug resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis.

BACKGROUND: Tuberculosis (TB) is still a global health problem mainly due to development of resistance and co-infection with the Human immune Virus (HIV). Treatment of multi and extensively drug resistant TB requires use of second line drugs which are less efficacious, expensive and very toxic. This has necessitated a need to search for new treatment regimens especially from medicinal plants. Zanthoxylum leprieurii, a plant species from Rutaceae is used locally in the treatment of tuberculosis in Uganda. The aim of the study was to isolate, identify and characterize bio active compounds from Z. leprieurii stem bark with antimycobacterial activity. METHODS: Crude extracts, fractions and compounds from air dried stem bark of Z. leprieurii were tested against pan sensitive (H37rv), isoniazid resistant (TMC 301) and rifampicin resistant (TMC 331) strains of M. tuberculosis using micro plate alamar blue assay. Isolation of active compounds was done by using column chromatography and thin layer chromatography. They were analysed using nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy and mass spectroscopy. RESULTS: The methanol extract had minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC) of 47.5, 75.3 and 125.0 µg/ml on the pan sensitive strain, rifampicin resistant and isozianid resistant strains of M. tuberculosis respectively. The chloroform extract had MIC values of 260 µg/ml agnaist the pan sensitive strain and 156 µg/ml on the rifampicin resistant strain. Of the sixteen fractions from the methanol extract, fraction Za4 (MIC = 6.3 µg/mL, 23.0 µg/mL, 11.7 µg/mL) and Za6 (MIC = 11.7 µg/mL 31.2 µg/ml, 31.2 µg/ml) were the most active. Three acridone alkaloids; hydroxy-1, 3-dimethoxy-10-methyl-9-acridone (1), 1-hydroxy-3-methoxy-10-methyl-9-acridone (2) and 3-hydroxy-1, 5, 6-trimethoxy-9-acridone (3) were isolated from Za4 and Za6. The MIC of compound 3 was found to be 5.1 µg/ml, 4.5 µg/ml and 3.9 µg/ml on H37rv, TMC 331 and TMC 301 while that of 1 was found to be 1.5 µg/ml, 8.3 µg/ml and 3.5 µg/ml respectively. CONCLUSION: The results of this study suggest that Z. leprieurii is active on resistant strains of M. tuberculosis and could be a potential source of new leads against resistant tuberculosis. It also verifies the local use of the plant in treatment of tuberculosis.

Characterization of the goat feeding system among rural small holder farmers in the semi-arid regions of Uganda.

Goats (Capra hircus) are widely distributed in Africa and Asia, and are important to the subsistence and economic livelihoods of many people in these areas. The goat feeding system among rural small holder farmers in Buyende district (Uganda) was characterised by determining the goat rearing practices, feed resources fed on by goats and availability of browse species mentioned by small holder farmers. Data was gathered using ethnobotanical and ecological approaches. Results from the ethnobotanical survey revealed that farmers were rearing indigenous goat breeds that are managed by tethering in natural pastures during the rainy season but free ranging during the dry season (i.e. when no crops are susceptible of damage). Major challenges facing goat production in the study area were diseases, shortage of land and inadequate pastures. The reduction of grazing land due to crop farming, has led to tethering of animals which in turn leads to restricted feeding. Goats were known to feed on 48 plant species distributed in 18 families and 39 genera dominated by trees and shrubs. Browse species were known to stay longer in the dry season when the grass and herbaceous species were no longer available. The most frequently mentioned browse species were Ficus natalensis, Harrisonia abyssinica, Acalypha psilostachya, Artocarpus heterophyllus and Lantana camara while Panicum maximum and Impeata cylindrica were the most mentioned herbaceous species. 31 browse species were encountered in the ecological survey. These were dominated by Combretum molle, L. camara, A. zygia, M. indica, and Albizia coriaria. In conclusion, the rearing practices of goats in Buyende district are comprised of indigenous goats tethered in natural pastures especially browses which stay longer through the dry season. However, most of the preferred browses are rare according to the computed IVI (i.e. less than 30%).

Knowledge on plants used traditionally in the treatment of tuberculosis in Uganda.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: Tuberculosis (TB) is one of the leading causes of morbidity and mortality globally. The disease is especially important because of increasing drug resistant strains and co infection with human immune virus (HIV) and acquired immune disease syndrome (AIDS). Because of this there is need to identify new leads that can be developed into new drugs. The objectives of this study were to (1) document plant species commonly used by traditional medicine practitioners (TMPs) to treat TB, methods of preparation and administration of drugs (2) document disease recognition by TMPs and (3) document medicine preservation and packaging practices by TMPs. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We interviewed 40 TMPs from Mpigi and Butambala districts using a guided questionnaire. RESULTS: A total of 90 plant species, distributed within 44 families were documented. Priority plants identified include Zanthoxylum leprieurii, Piptadeniastrum africanum, Albizia coriaria and Rubia cordifolia which were most mentioned by TMPs. TMPs had knowledge of how TB is transmitted and they admitted that it is closely associated with HIV. Decoctions of multiple plant species were commonly used. Plant parts frequently used were leaves followed by the stem bark and root bark. The TMPs had insufficient knowledge about packaging and preservation techniques. CONCLUSION: Plant based therapies for treating TB have been identified in this study and further investigation of these plants is appropriate as these, may be developed into new drugs to curb the resistant strains of TB.

Herbal medicine use in the districts of Nakapiripirit, Pallisa, Kanungu, and Mukono in Uganda.

BACKGROUND: Traditional medicine (TM) occupies a special place in the management of diseases in Uganda. Not with standing the many people relying on TM, indigenous knowledge (IK) related to TM is getting steadily eroded. To slow down this loss it is necessary to document and conserve as much of the knowledge as possible. This study was conducted to document the IK relevant to traditional medicine in the districts of Mukono, Nakapiripirit, Kanungu and Pallisa, in Uganda. METHODS: An ethnobotanical survey was conducted between October 2008 and February 2009 using techniques of key informant interviews and household interviews. RESULTS: The common diseases and conditions in the four districts include malaria, cough, headache, diarrhea, abdominal pain, flu, backache and eye diseases. Respondents stated that when they fall sick they self medicate using plant medicines or consult western-trained medicine practitioners. Self medication using herbal medicines was reported mostly by respondents of Nakapiripirit and Mukono. Respondents have knowledge to treat 78 ailments using herbal medicines. 44 species, mentioned by three or more respondents have been prioritized. The most frequently used part in herbal medicines is the leaf, followed by the stem and root. People sometime use animal parts, soil, salt and water from a grass roof, in traditional medicines. Herbal medicines are stored for short periods of time in bottles. The knowledge to treat ailments is acquired from parents and grandparents. Respondents' age and tribe appears to have a significant influence on knowledge of herbal medicine, while gender does not. CONCLUSION: This survey has indicated that IK associated with TM stills exists and that TM is still important in Uganda because many people use it as a first line of health care when they fall sick. Age and tribe influence the level of IK associated with herbal medicine, but gender does not.

Medicinal plants used by traditional medicine practitioners for the treatment of HIV/AIDS and related conditions in Uganda.

INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVES: In Uganda, there are over one million people with HIV/AIDS. When advanced, this disease is characterized by life-threatening opportunistic infections. As the formal health sector struggles to confront this epidemic, new medicines from traditional sources are needed to complement control efforts. This study was conducted to document herbal medicines used in the treatment of HIV/AIDS and related opportunistic infections, and to document the existing knowledge, attitudes and practices related to HIV/AIDS recognition, control and treatment in Sembabule, Kamuli, Kabale and Gulu districts in Uganda. METHODS: In this study, 25 traditional medicine practitioners (TMPs) were interviewed using structured questionnaires. RESULTS: The TMPs could recognize important signs and symptoms of HIV/AIDS and its associated opportunistic infections. The majority of practitioners treated patients who were already receiving allopathic medicines including antiretroviral drugs (ARVs) prescribed by allopathic practitioners. There were 103 species of medicinal plants identified in this survey. Priority plants identified include Aloe spp., Erythrina abyssinica, Sarcocephalus latifolius, Psorospermum febrifugum, Mangifera indica and Warburgia salutaris. There was low consensus among TMPs on the plants used. Decoctions of multiple plant species were commonly used except in Gulu where mono-preparations were common. Plant parts frequently used were leaves (33%), stem bark (23%) and root bark (18%). About 80% of preparations were administered orally in variable doses over varied time periods. The TMP had insufficient knowledge about packaging and preservation techniques. CONCLUSIONS: Numerous medicinal plants for treatment of HIV/AIDS patients were identified in the four districts surveyed and the role of these plants in the management of opportunistic infections warrants further investigation as these plants may have a role in Uganda's public health approach to HIV/AIDS control.

Medicinal plants used by traditional medicine practitioners in the treatment of tuberculosis and related ailments in Uganda.

AIM OF THE STUDY: Tuberculosis (TB) remains one of the most difficult ailments to control in the world today. The emergence of drug resistant strains has made previously effective and affordable remedies less effective. This has made the search for new medicines from local traditional medicines urgent. The specific objectives of this study were to (1) identify plant species used in the treatment of TB, their methods of preparation and administration, (2) document TB recognition, and (3) document medicine processing and packaging practices by traditional medicine practitioners (TMPs). METHODS: We interviewed 32 TMPs from the districts of Kamuli, Kisoro and Nakapiripirit using a guided questionnaire. RESULTS: We documented 88 plant species used to treat TB. Seven of these, Eucalyptus spp., Warburgia salutaris (G. Bertol.) Chiov., Ocimum suave Willd., Zanthoxylum chalybeum Engl., Momordica foetida Schum., Persea americana Mill. and Acacia hockii De Wild. were mentioned by three or more TMPs. Medicines were prepared mostly as mixtures or infrequently as mono-preparations in dosage forms of decoctions and infusions. They were administered orally in variable doses over varying periods of time. The TMPs did not know how to preserve the medicines and packaged them in used water bottles. Almost all TMPs mentioned the most important signs by which TB is recognised. They also knew that TB was a contagious disease spread through poor hygiene and crowding. CONCLUSIONS: Local knowledge and practices of treating TB exist in the districts surveyed. This knowledge may be imperfect and TMPs appear to be still experimenting with which species to use to treat TB. There is need to screen among the species mentioned to determine those which are efficacious and safe. The technology of processing, packaging and preserving traditional medicines for the treatment of TB is very basic and needs improving. The TMPs appear to be playing a significant role in primary health care delivery and this lends further justification for the ongoing Uganda government efforts to integrate the allopathic and traditional medicine systems.

Ethnoveterinary knowledge in pastoral Karamoja, Uganda.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: The people of Karamoja of northern Uganda chiefly rely on ethnoveterinary knowledge (EVK) to control common livestock health problems. In spite of cattle's central role in Karamojong culture and livelihoods, there has been no systematic recording of their ethnoveterinary plant-based cures to date. AIM OF STUDY: To document the remedies used to treat livestock diseases, their preparation and administration. METHODS: Data were collected using semi-structured interviews, guided questionnaires, group discussions, direct observations and collection trips. RESULTS: We present information on 209 plant species and 18 non-plant materials. Plant species are distributed over 116 genera and 54 families. The most common medicinal use was treatment against anaplasmosis. Balanites aegyptiacus, Carissa spinarum, Warburgia salutaris and Harrisonia abyssinica had the most uses of all species. All different plant parts were used; bark and underground parts were exploited more frequently than other plant parts. Most remedies listed used a single ingredient, typically soaked in water; only 12.8% remedies used multiple plants. The route of administration was primarily oral followed by topical applications. Almost all plants are collected from the wild; none of the few cultivated plants used had been planted for medicinal purposes. CONCLUSIONS: The pastoralists in the study site possess a wealth of EVK which they use to maintain animal health. Their rich knowledge and high diversity of plants were recorded here for the first time.

Herbal medicines used in the treatment of malaria in Budiope county, Uganda.

AIM OF THE STUDY: This study was conducted to document herbal medicines (HMs) used in the treatment of malaria as well as the existing knowledge, attitudes and practices related to malaria recognition, control and treatment in Budiope county, Uganda. METHODS: Data was collected using semi-structured interviews, and open- and close-ended questionnaires. RESULTS: The respondents had a good understanding of malaria, and could recognize it and distinguish it from other fever types. They were also aware that malaria was spread by mosquitoes. Malaria prevalence was high, and affected individuals an average of six times a year. Respondents avoided mosquito bites by using mosquito nets, clearing bush around their homesteads, and burning plant parts to generate smoke. They preferred treating malaria using allopathic medicines because, according to them, they lacked the appropriate traditional knowledge necessary to exploit plants for the treatment of malaria. Secondly, allopathic medicines were believed to be superior to HMs in the treatment of malaria. Twenty-seven species were used for the treatment of malaria. The most frequently mentioned were Vernonia amygdalina, Momordica foetida, Zanthoxylum chalybeum, Lantana camara and Mangifera indica. Drugs from these plants were prepared from single species as water extracts and were administered in variable doses over varied time periods.

Ethnoveterinary medicines for cattle (Bos indicus) in Bulamogi county, Uganda: plant species and mode of use.

In this paper, we present an inventory and the mode of use of plants to treat cattle. This study was carried out in Bulamogi county of Uganda, using methods consisting of semi-structured interviews employing a checklist of questions, questionnaires, direct observations, and biological inventories. Farmers employ both traditional and western medicine to treat their animals. The local people identified 33 different diseases, and had herbal treatments for nine of these. Some of the diseases mentioned by farmers indicated symptoms of diseases. Thus, the naming of diseases by local people when compared to the western veterinary medicine system, at times did not distinguish between diseases and symptoms of diseases. This is because the local disease nomenclature is based on symptoms of diseases, whereas under western veterinary science diseases are named according to aetiological information. As for traditional medicine, we report for the first time the use of 38 plant species, distributed in 37 genera and 28 families, to treat the common cattle diseases in Bulamogi. Most of these plants grow wild (76.3%), are indigenous (68.4%) and are shrubs (60.5%). The plant parts most frequently used for treating cattle are roots (37.5%) and leaves (27.5%). Medications are mostly prepared as infusions and seldom as decoctions. Topical application of some medicines is practised as well. The species used to treat cattle are also used to treat some human ailments and have some other uses as well. Most of the curative species reported here are directed at treating East Coast fever (ECF), a disease known to cause high fatalities in cattle.