A deletion in FLS2 and its expansion after domestication caused global dissemination of melon cultivars defective in flagellin recognition.

FLAGELLIN SENSING 2 (FLS2) encodes a pattern recognition receptor that perceives bacterial flagellin. While putative FLS2 orthologs are broadly conserved in plants, their functional characterization remains limited. Here, we report the identification of orthologs in cucumber (Cucumis sativus) and melon (C. melo), named CsFLS2 and CmFLS2, respectively. Homology searching identified CsFLS2, and virus-induced gene silencing (VIGS) demonstrated that CsFLS2 is required for flg22-triggered ROS generation. Interestingly, genome re-sequencing of melon cv. Lennon and subsequent genomic PCR revealed that Lennon has two CmFLS2 haplotypes, haplotype I encoding full-length CmFLS2 and haplotype II encoding a truncated form. We show that VIGS-mediated knockdown of CmFLS2 haplotype I resulted in a significant reduction in both flg22-triggered ROS generation and immunity to a bacterial pathogen in melon cv. Lennon. Remarkably, genomic PCR of CmFLS2 revealed that 68% of tested commercial melon cultivars possess only CmFLS2 haplotype II: these cultivars thus lack functional CmFLS2. To explore evolutionary aspects of CmFLS2 haplotype II occurrence, we genotyped the CmFLS2 locus in 142 melon accessions by genomic PCR and analyzed 437 released sequences. The results suggest that CmFLS2 haplotype II is derived from C. melo subsp. melo. Furthermore, we suggest that the proportion of CmFLS2 haplotype II increased among the improved melo group compared with the primitive melo group. Collectively, these findings suggest that the deleted FLS2 locus generated in the primitive melo subspecies expanded after domestication, resulting in the spread of commercial melon cultivars defective in flagellin recognition, which is critical for bacterial immunity.

Guanosine-specific single-stranded ribonuclease effectors of a phytopathogenic fungus potentiate host immune responses.

Plants activate immunity upon recognition of pathogen-associated molecular patterns. Although phytopathogens have evolved a set of effector proteins to counteract plant immunity, some effectors are perceived by hosts and induce immune responses. Here, we show that two secreted ribonuclease effectors, SRN1 and SRN2, encoded in a phytopathogenic fungus, Colletotrichum orbiculare, induce cell death in a signal peptide- and catalytic residue-dependent manner, when transiently expressed in Nicotiana benthamiana. The pervasive presence of SRN genes across Colletotrichum species suggested the conserved roles. Using a transient gene expression system in cucumber (Cucumis sativus), an original host of C. orbiculare, we show that SRN1 and SRN2 potentiate host pattern-triggered immunity responses. Consistent with this, C. orbiculare SRN1 and SRN2 deletion mutants exhibited increased virulence on the host. In vitro analysis revealed that SRN1 specifically cleaves single-stranded RNAs at guanosine, leaving a 3'-end phosphate. Importantly, the potentiation of C. sativus responses by SRN1 and SRN2, present in the apoplast, depends on ribonuclease catalytic residues. We propose that the pathogen-derived apoplastic guanosine-specific single-stranded endoribonucleases lead to immunity potentiation in plants.

Selective deployment of virulence effectors correlates with host specificity in a fungal plant pathogen.

The hemibiotrophic fungal plant pathogen Colletotrichum orbiculare is predicted to secrete hundreds of effector proteins when the pathogen infects cucurbit crops, such as cucumber and melon, and tobacco (Nicotiana benthamiana), a distantly related Solanaceae species. Here, we report the identification of sets of C. orbiculare effector genes that are differentially required for fungal virulence to two phylogenetically distant host species. Through targeted gene knockout screening of C. orbiculare 'core' effector candidates defined based on in planta gene expression, we identified: four host-specific virulence effectors (named effector proteins for cucurbit infection, or EPCs) that are required for full virulence of C. orbiculare to cucurbit hosts, but not to the Solanaceae host N. benthamiana; and five host-nonspecific virulence effectors, which collectively contribute to fungal virulence to both hosts. During host infection, only a small subset of genes, including the host-specific EPC effector genes, showed preferential expression on one of the hosts, while gene expression profiles of the majority of other genes, including the five host-nonspecific effector genes, were common to both hosts. This work suggests that C. orbiculare adopts a host-specific effector deployment strategy, in addition to general host-blind virulence mechanisms, for adaptation to cucurbit hosts.

The establishment of multiple knockout mutants of Colletotrichum orbiculare by CRISPR-Cas9 and Cre-loxP systems.

Colletotrichum orbiculare is employed as a model fungus to analyze molecular aspects of plant-fungus interactions. Although gene disruption via homologous recombination (HR) was established for C. orbiculare, this approach is laborious due to its low efficiency. Here we developed methods to generate multiple knockout mutants of C. orbiculare efficiently. We first found that CRISPR-Cas9 system massively promoted gene-targeting efficiency. By transiently introducing a CRISPR-Cas9 vector, more than 90% of obtained transformants were knockout mutants. Furthermore, we optimized a self-excision Cre-loxP marker recycling system for C. orbiculare because a limited availability of desired selective markers hampers sequential gene disruption. In this system, the integrated selective marker is removable from the genome via Cre recombinase driven by a xylose-inducible promoter, enabling the reuse of the same selective marker for the next transformation. Using our CRISPR-Cas9 and Cre-loxP systems, we attempted to identify functional sugar transporters involved in fungal virulence. Multiple disruptions of putative quinate transporter genes restricted fungal growth on media containing quinate as a sole carbon source, confirming their functionality as quinate transporters. However, our analyses showed that quinate acquisition was dispensable for infection to host plants. In addition, we successfully built mutations of 17 cellobiose transporter genes in a strain. From the data of knockout mutants that we established in this study, we inferred that repetitive rounds of gene disruption using CRISPR-Cas9 and Cre-loxP systems do not cause adverse effects on fungal virulence and growth. Therefore, these systems will be powerful tools to perform a systematic loss-of-function approach for C. orbiculare.

Subcellular dynamics of red clover necrotic mosaic virus double-stranded RNAs in infected plant cells.

New evidences are emerging to support the importance of viral replication complexes (VRCs) in not only viral replication, but also viral cell-to-cell movement. Currently, how VRCs grow in size and colocalize with viral movement proteins (MPs) remains unclear. Herein, we performed live-cell imaging of red clover necrotic mosaic virus (RCNMV) dsRNA by using reporter B2-GFP plants. Tiny granules of dsRNA were formed along the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) at an early stage of infection. Importantly, the colocalization of the dsRNA granules with the virus-encoded p27 replication protein showed that these structures are components of VRCs. These granules moved throughout the cytoplasm, driven by the acto-myosin system, and coalesced with each other to form larger aggregates; the MPs were not associated with these processes. Notably, the MPs colocalized preferentially with large dsRNA aggregates, rather than with tiny dsRNA granules, suggesting that the increase in the size of VRCs promotes their colocalization with MPs.

Fungal effector SIB1 of Colletotrichum orbiculare has unique structural features and can suppress plant immunity in Nicotiana benthamiana.

Fungal plant pathogens secrete virulence-related proteins, called effectors, to establish host infection; however, the details are not fully understood yet. Functional screening of effector candidates using Agrobacterium-mediated transient expression assay in Nicotiana benthamiana identified two virulence-related effectors, named SIB1 and SIB2 (Suppression of Immunity in N. benthamiana), of an anthracnose fungus Colletotrichum orbiculare, which infects both cucurbits and N. benthamiana. The Agrobacterium-mediated transient expression of SIB1 or SIB2 increased the susceptibility of N. benthamiana to C. orbiculare, which suggested these effectors can suppress immune responses in N. benthamiana. The presence of SIB1 and SIB2 homologs was found to be limited to the genus Colletotrichum. SIB1 suppressed both (i) the generation of reactive oxygen species triggered by two different pathogen-associated molecular patterns, chitin and flg22, and (ii) the cell death response triggered by the Phytophthora infestans INF1 elicitin in N. benthamiana. We determined the NMR-based structure of SIB1 to obtain its structural insights. The three-dimensional structure of SIB1 comprises five ß-strands, each containing three disulfide bonds. The overall conformation was found to be a cylindrical shape, such as the well-known antiparallel ß-barrel structure. However, the ß-strands were found to display a unique topology, one pair of these ß-strands formed a parallel ß-sheet. These results suggest that the effector SIB1 present in Colletotrichum fungi has unique structural features and can suppress pathogen-associated molecular pattern-triggered immunity in N. benthamiana.

The Conserved Colletotrichum spp. Effector Candidate CEC3 Induces Nuclear Expansion and Cell Death in Plants.

Plant pathogens secrete proteins, known as effectors, that promote infection by manipulating host cells. Members of the phytopathogenic fungal genus Colletotrichum collectively have a broad host range and generally adopt a hemibiotrophic lifestyle that includes an initial biotrophic phase and a later necrotrophic phase. We hypothesized that Colletotrichum fungi use a set of conserved effectors during infection to support the two phases of their hemibiotrophic lifestyle. This study aimed to examine this hypothesis by identifying and characterizing conserved effectors among Colletotrichum fungi. Comparative genomic analyses using genomes of ascomycete fungi with different lifestyles identified seven effector candidates that are conserved across the genus Colletotrichum. Transient expression assays showed that one of these putative conserved effectors, CEC3, induces nuclear expansion and cell death in Nicotiana benthamiana, suggesting that CEC3 is involved in promoting host cell death during infection. Nuclear expansion and cell death induction were commonly observed in CEC3 homologs from four different Colletotrichum species that vary in host specificity. Thus, CEC3 proteins could represent a novel class of core effectors with functional conservation in the genus Colletotrichum.

Arabidopsis CURLY LEAF functions in leaf immunity against fungal pathogens by concomitantly repressing SEPALLATA3 and activating ORA59.

Arabidopsis non-host resistance against non-adapted fungal pathogens including Colletotrichum fungi consists of pre-invasive and post-invasive immune responses. Here we report that non-host resistance against non-adapted Colletotrichum spp. in Arabidopsis leaves requires CURLY LEAF (CLF), which is critical for leaf development, flowering and growth. Microscopic analysis of pathogen behavior revealed a requirement for CLF in both pre- and post-invasive non-host resistance. The loss of a functional SEPALLATA3 (SEP3) gene, ectopically expressed in clf mutant leaves, suppressed not only the defect of the clf plants in growth and leaf development but also a defect in non-host resistance against the non-adapted Colletotrichum tropicale. However, the ectopic overexpression of SEP3 in Arabidopsis wild-type leaves did not disrupt the non-host resistance. The expression of multiple plant defensin (PDF) genes that are involved in non-host resistance against C. tropicale was repressed in clf leaves. Moreover, the Octadecanoid-responsive Arabidopsis 59 (ORA59) gene, which is required for PDF expression, was also repressed in clf leaves. Notably, when SEP3 was overexpressed in the ora59 mutant background, C. tropicale produced clear lesions in the inoculated leaves, indicating an impairment in non-host resistance. Furthermore, ora59 plants overexpressing SEP3 exhibited a defect in leaf immunity to the adapted Colletotrichum higginsianum. Since the ora59 plants overexpressing SEP3 did not display obvious leaf curling or reduced growth, in contrast to the clf mutants, these results strongly suggest that concomitant SEP3 repression and ORA59 induction via CLF are required for Arabidopsis leaf immunity to Colletotrichum fungi, uncoupled from CLF's function in growth and leaf development.

Comparative transient expression analyses on two conserved effectors of Colletotrichum orbiculare reveal their distinct cell death-inducing activities between Nicotiana benthamiana and melon.

Colletotrichum orbiculare infects cucurbits, such as cucumber and melon (Cucumis melo), as well as the model Solanaceae plant Nicotiana benthamiana, by secreting an arsenal of effectors that suppress the immunity of these distinct plants. Two conserved effectors of C. orbiculare, called NLP1 and NIS1, induce cell death responses in N. benthamiana, but it is unclear whether they exhibit the same activity in Cucurbitaceae plants. In this study, we established a new Agrobacterium-mediated transient expression system to investigate the cell death-inducing activity of NLP1 and NIS1 in melon. NLP1 strongly induced cell death in melon but, in contrast to the effects seen in N. benthamiana, mutations either in the heptapeptide motif or in the putative glycosylinositol phosphorylceramide-binding site did not cancel its cell death-inducing activity in melon. Furthermore, NLP1 lacking the signal peptide caused cell death in melon but not in N. benthamiana. Study of the transient expression of NIS1 also revealed that, unlike in N. benthamiana, NIS1 did not induce cell death in melon. In contrast, NIS1 suppressed flg22-induced reactive oxygen species generation in melon, as seen in N. benthamiana. These findings indicate distinct cell death-inducing activities of NLP1 and NIS1 in these two plant species that C. orbiculare infects.

Multiple Colletotrichum species commonly exhibit focal effector accumulation in a biotrophic interface at the primary invasion sites in their host plants.

Fungal plant pathogens deploy a suite of secreted proteins, called effectors, to facilitate successful infection. Several fungal pathogens have been reported to secrete and accumulate their effector proteins in the host-pathogen interfacial spaces. Previously, we reported that the strain 104-T of the cucurbit anthracnose pathogen Colletotrichum orbiculare secretes and accumulates mCherry-tagged effectors along with the formation of ring-shaped fluorescence signals beneath the appressoria. However, it was unclear whether these effector accumulation patterns occur in other C. orbiculare isolates and other species belonging to the Colletotrichum genus. Here, we investigated the effector localization during host infection of C. orbiculare MAFF306589, C. trifolii MAFF305078, which infects alfalfa, and C. higginsianum MAFF305635, which infects Brassicaceae plants. We generated effector-reporter lines of each species, which constitutively expressed mCherry-tagged CoDN3 effector (CoDN3:mCherry). Immunoblotting analysis of the liquid culture fluids of the generated lines detected CoDN3:mCherry, which confirmed secretion of CoDN3:mCherry by fungal cells. Via inoculation assays in the corresponding host plants, we detected ring-shaped CoDN3:mCherry fluorescence around the appressorial invasion sites in all tested reporter lines. These results suggest that pathogens in the Colletotrichum genus have evolutionarily conserved the trait of effector secretion in the infection stage irrespective of differences in their hosts.

Epidermal chloroplasts are defense-related motile organelles equipped with plant immune components.

In addition to conspicuous large mesophyll chloroplasts, where most photosynthesis occurs, small epidermal chloroplasts have also been observed in plant leaves. However, the functional significance of this small organelle remains unclear. Here, we present evidence that Arabidopsis epidermal chloroplasts control the entry of fungal pathogens. In entry trials, specialized fungal cells called appressoria triggered dynamic movement of epidermal chloroplasts. This movement is controlled by common regulators of mesophyll chloroplast photorelocation movement, designated as the epidermal chloroplast response (ECR). The ECR occurs when the PEN2 myrosinase-related higher-layer antifungal system becomes ineffective, and blockage of the distinct steps of the ECR commonly decreases preinvasive nonhost resistance against fungi. Furthermore, immune components were preferentially localized to epidermal chloroplasts, contributing to antifungal nonhost resistance in the pen2 background. Our findings reveal that atypical small chloroplasts act as defense-related motile organelles by specifically positioning immune components in the plant epidermis, which is the first site of contact between the plant and pathogens. Thus, this work deepens our understanding of the functions of epidermal chloroplasts.

Telomeres and a repeat-rich chromosome encode effector gene clusters in plant pathogenic Colletotrichum fungi.

Members of the Colletotrichum gloeosporioides species complex are causal agents of anthracnose in many commercially important plants. Closely related strains have different levels of pathogenicity on hosts despite their close phylogenetic relationship. To gain insight into the genetics underlying these differences, we generated and annotated whole-genome assemblies of multiple isolates of C. fructicola (Cf) and C. siamense (Cs), as well as three previously unsequenced species, C. aenigma (Ca), C. tropicale and C. viniferum with different pathogenicity on strawberry. Based on comparative genomics, we identified accessory regions with a high degree of conservation in strawberry-pathogenic Cf, Cs and Ca strains. These regions encode homologs of pathogenicity-related genes known as effectors, organized in syntenic gene clusters, with copy number variations in different strains of Cf, Cs and Ca. Analysis of highly contiguous assemblies of Cf, Cs and Ca revealed the association of related accessory effector gene clusters with telomeres and repeat-rich chromosomes and provided evidence of exchange between these two genomic compartments. In addition, expression analysis indicated that orthologues in syntenic gene clusters showed a tendency for correlated gene expression during infection. These data provide insight into mechanisms by which Colletotrichum genomes evolve, acquire and organize effectors.

Tryptophan-derived metabolites and BAK1 separately contribute to Arabidopsis postinvasive immunity against Alternaria brassicicola.

Nonhost resistance of Arabidopsis thaliana against the hemibiotrophic fungus Colletotrichum tropicale requires PEN2-dependent preinvasive resistance and CYP71A12 and CYP71A13-dependent postinvasive resistance, which both rely on tryptophan (Trp) metabolism. We here revealed that CYP71A12, CYP71A13 and PAD3 are critical for Arabidopsis' postinvasive basal resistance toward the necrotrophic Alternaria brassicicola. Consistent with this, gene expression and metabolite analyses suggested that the invasion by A. brassicicola triggered the CYP71A12-dependent production of indole-3-carboxylic acid derivatives and the PAD3 and CYP71A13-dependent production of camalexin. We next addressed the activation of the CYP71A12 and PAD3-dependent postinvasive resistance. We found that bak1-5 mutation significantly reduced postinvasive resistance against A. brassicicola, indicating that pattern recognition contributes to activation of this second defense-layer. However, the bak1-5 mutation had no detectable effects on the Trp-metabolism triggered by the fungal penetration. Together with this, further comparative gene expression analyses suggested that pathogen invasion in Arabidopsis activates (1) CYP71A12 and PAD3-related antifungal metabolism that is not hampered by bak1-5, and (2) a bak1-5 sensitive immune pathway that activates the expression of antimicrobial proteins.

Plant defensin expression triggered by fungal pathogen invasion depends on EDR1 protein kinase and ORA59 transcription factor in Arabidopsis thaliana.

Arabidopsis thaliana exhibits durable 'non-host' resistance against the hemibiotrophic fungal pathogen Colletotrichum tropicale that infects mulberry plants. Arabidopsis non-host resistance comprises two layers of defense: preinvasive and postinvasive resistance. The EDR1 protein kinase contributes to Arabidopsis preinvasive resistance against C. tropicale by inducing the expression of plant defensin (PDF) genes. Here we report that the expressions of multiple PDF genes were strongly induced in Arabidopsis upon invasion by C. tropicale. Invasion by a necrotrophic pathogen, Alternaria brassicicola, also induced PDF expression. Importantly, PDF expression triggered upon invasion by both pathogens was inhibited in edr1 mutants, indicating the requirement of EDR1 for PDF expression in postinvasive resistance by Arabidopsis. Analysis of ora59 mutants also revealed that this gene is critical for induced PDF expression following pathogen invasion. Furthermore, inoculation assays of A. brassicicola indicated that ORA59 is involved in postinvasive resistance against the pathogen, suggesting invasion-triggered PDF expression contributes to postinvasive resistance in Arabidopsis.

Lumi-Map, a Real-Time Luciferase Bioluminescence Screen of Mutants Combined with MutMap, Reveals Arabidopsis Genes Involved in PAMP-Triggered Immunity.

Plants recognize pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) to activate PAMP-triggered immunity (PTI). However, our knowledge of PTI signaling remains limited. In this report, we introduce Lumi-Map, a high-throughput platform for identifying causative single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) for studying PTI signaling components. In Lumi-Map, a transgenic reporter plant line is produced that contains a firefly luciferase (LUC) gene driven by a defense gene promoter, which generates luminescence upon PAMP treatment. The line is mutagenized and the mutants with altered luminescence patterns are screened by a high-throughput real-time bioluminescence monitoring system. Selected mutants are subjected to MutMap analysis, a whole-genome sequencing-based method of rapid mutation identification, to identify the causative SNP responsible for the luminescence pattern change. We generated nine transgenic Arabidopsis reporter lines expressing the LUC gene fused to multiple promoter sequences of defense-related genes. These lines generate luminescence upon activation of FLAGELLIN-SENSING 2 (FLS2) by flg22, a PAMP derived from bacterial flagellin. We selected the WRKY29-promoter reporter line to identify mutants in the signaling pathway downstream of FLS2. After screening 24,000 ethylmethanesulfonate-induced mutants of the reporter line, we isolated 22 mutants with altered WRKY29 expression upon flg22 treatment (abbreviated as awf mutants). Although five flg22-insensitive awf mutants harbored mutations in FLS2 itself, Lumi-Map revealed three genes not previously associated with PTI. Lumi-Map has the potential to identify novel PAMPs and their receptors as well as signaling components downstream of the receptors.[Formula: see text] Copyright © 2020 The Author(s). This is an open access article distributed under the CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 International license.

RLP23 is required for Arabidopsis immunity against the grey mould pathogen Botrytis cinerea.

Necrosis- and ethylene-inducing-like proteins (NLPs) are secreted by fungi, oomycetes and bacteria. Conserved nlp peptides derived from NLPs are recognized as pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs), leading to PAMP-triggered immune responses. RLP23 is the receptor of the nlp peptides in Arabidopsis thaliana; however, its actual contribution to plant immunity is unclear. Here, we report that RLP23 is required for Arabidopsis immunity against the necrotrophic fungal pathogen Botrytis cinerea. Arabidopsis rlp23 mutants exhibited enhanced susceptibility to B. cinerea compared with the wild-type plants. Notably, microscopic observation of the B. cinerea infection behaviour indicated the involvement of RLP23 in pre-invasive resistance to the pathogen. B. cinerea carried two NLP genes, BcNEP1 and BcNEP2; BcNEP1 was expressed preferentially before/during invasion into Arabidopsis, whereas BcNEP2 was expressed at the late phase of infection. Importantly, the nlp peptides derived from both BcNEP1 and BcNEP2 induced the production of reactive oxygen species in an RLP23-dependent manner. In contrast, another necrotrophic fungus Alternaria brassicicola did not express the NLP gene in the early infection phase and exhibited no enhanced virulence in the rlp23 mutants. Collectively, these results strongly suggest that RLP23 contributes to Arabidopsis pre-invasive resistance to B. cinerea via NLP recognition at the early infection phase.

The role of CYP71A12 monooxygenase in pathogen-triggered tryptophan metabolism and Arabidopsis immunity.

Effective defense of Arabidopsis against filamentous pathogens requires two mechanisms, both of which involve biosynthesis of tryptophan (Trp)-derived metabolites. Extracellular resistance involves products of PEN2-dependent metabolism of indole glucosinolates (IGs). Restriction of further fungal growth requires PAD3-dependent camalexin and other, as yet uncharacterized, indolics. This study focuses on the function of CYP71A12 monooxygenase in pathogen-triggered Trp metabolism, including the biosynthesis of indole-3-carboxylic acid (ICA). Moreover, to investigate the contribution of CYP71A12 and its products to Arabidopsis immunity, we analyzed infection phenotypes of multiple mutant lines combining pen2 with pad3, cyp71A12, cyp71A13 or cyp82C2. Metabolite profiling of cyp71A12 lines revealed a reduction in ICA accumulation. Additionally, analysis of mutant plants showed that low amounts of ICA can form during an immune response by CYP71B6/AAO1-dependent metabolism of indole acetonitrile, but not via IG hydrolysis. Infection assays with Plectosphaerella cucumerina and Colletotrichum tropicale, two pathogens with different lifestyles, revealed cyp71A12-, cyp71A13- and cyp82C2-associated defects associated with Arabidopsis immunity. Our results indicate that CYP71A12, but not CYP71A13, is the major enzyme responsible for the accumulation of ICA in Arabidopsis in response to pathogen ingression. We also show that both enzymes are key players in the resistance of Arabidopsis against selected filamentous pathogens after they invade.

HIGH STEROL ESTER 1 is a key factor in plant sterol homeostasis.

Plants strictly regulate the levels of sterol in their cells, as high sterol levels are toxic. However, how plants achieve sterol homeostasis is not fully understood. We isolated an Arabidopsis thaliana mutant that abundantly accumulated sterol esters in structures of about 1 µm in diameter in leaf cells. We designated the mutant high sterol ester 1 (hise1) and called the structures sterol ester bodies. Here, we show that HISE1, the gene product that is altered in this mutant, functions as a key factor in plant sterol homeostasis on the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and participates in a fail-safe regulatory system comprising two processes. First, HISE1 downregulates the protein levels of the ß-hydroxy ß-methylglutaryl-CoA reductases HMGR1 and HMGR2, which are rate-limiting enzymes in the sterol synthesis pathway, resulting in suppression of sterol overproduction. Second, if the first process is not successful, excess sterols are converted to sterol esters by phospholipid sterol acyltransferase1 (PSAT1) on ER microdomains and then segregated in SE bodies.

Ca2+-dependent interaction between calmodulin and CoDN3, an effector of Colletotrichum orbiculare.

Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) data directly indicated a Ca2+-dependent interaction between calmodulin (CaM) and CoDN3, a small effector of the plant pathogenic fungus Colletotrichum orbiculare, which is the causal agent of cucumber anthracnose. The overall conformation of CoDN3 is intrinsically disordered, and the CaM-binding site spans residues 34-53 of its C-terminal region. Experiments employing a chemically synthesized peptide corresponding to the CaM-binding site indicated that the CaM-binding region of CoDN3 in the Ca2+-bound CaM complex takes an α-helical conformation. Cell death suppression assay using a CoDN3 mutant lacking the CaM-binding ability suggested that the wild type CaM-binding site is necessary for full CoDN3 function in vivo.

Genomic Plasticity Mediated by Transposable Elements in the Plant Pathogenic Fungus Colletotrichum higginsianum.

Phytopathogen genomes are under constant pressure to change, as pathogens are locked in an evolutionary arms race with their hosts, where pathogens evolve effector genes to manipulate their hosts, whereas the hosts evolve immune components to recognize the products of these genes. Colletotrichum higginsianum (Ch), a fungal pathogen with no known sexual morph, infects Brassicaceae plants including Arabidopsis thaliana. Previous studies revealed that Ch differs in its virulence toward various Arabidopsis thaliana ecotypes, indicating the existence of coevolutionary selective pressures. However, between-strain genomic variations in Ch have not been studied. Here, we sequenced and assembled the genome of a Ch strain, resulting in a highly contiguous genome assembly, which was compared with the chromosome-level genome assembly of another strain to identify genomic variations between strains. We found that the two closely related strains vary in terms of large-scale rearrangements, the existence of strain-specific regions, and effector candidate gene sets and that these variations are frequently associated with transposable elements (TEs). Ch has a compartmentalized genome consisting of gene-sparse, TE-dense regions with more effector candidate genes and gene-dense, TE-sparse regions harboring conserved genes. Additionally, analysis of the conservation patterns and syntenic regions of effector candidate genes indicated that the two strains vary in their effector candidate gene sets because of de novo evolution, horizontal gene transfer, or gene loss after divergence. Our results reveal mechanisms for generating genomic diversity in this asexual pathogen, which are important for understanding its adaption to hosts.