Gene expression and metabolite levels converge in the thermogenic spadix of skunk cabbage.

The inflorescence (spadix) of skunk cabbage (Symplocarpus renifolius) is strongly thermogenic and can regulate its temperature at around 23 °C even when the ambient temperature drops below freezing. To elucidate the mechanisms underlying developmentally controlled thermogenesis and thermoregulation in skunk cabbage, we conducted a comprehensive transcriptome and metabolome analysis across 3 developmental stages of spadix development. Our RNA-seq analysis revealed distinct groups of expressed genes, with selenium-binding protein 1/methanethiol oxidase (SBP1/MTO) exhibiting the highest levels in thermogenic florets. Notably, the expression of alternative oxidase (AOX) was consistently high from the prethermogenic stage through the thermogenic stage in the florets. Metabolome analysis showed that alterations in nucleotide levels correspond with the developmentally controlled and tissue-specific thermogenesis of skunk cabbage, evident by a substantial increase in AMP levels in thermogenic florets. Our study also reveals that hydrogen sulfide, a product of SBP1/MTO, inhibits cytochrome c oxidase (COX)-mediated mitochondrial respiration, while AOX-mediated respiration remains relatively unaffected. Specifically, at lower temperatures, the inhibitory effect of hydrogen sulfide on COX-mediated respiration increases, promoting a shift toward the dominance of AOX-mediated respiration. Finally, despite the differential regulation of genes and metabolites throughout spadix development, we observed a convergence of gene expression and metabolite accumulation patterns during thermogenesis. This synchrony may play a key role in developmentally regulated thermogenesis. Moreover, such convergence during the thermogenic stage in the spadix may provide a solid molecular basis for thermoregulation in skunk cabbage.

Direct Detection of S(3P) and S(1D) Generated in the O(1D) + OCS Reaction: Mechanism of the Formation of S2(X3Σg- and a1Δg).

Highly vibrationally excited disulfur S2 in the X3Σg- and a1Δg states has been detected in the gaseous mixture of O3 and OCS irradiated with light at 266 nm. Generation of CO2 in the reaction system has been reported; however, no direct detection of sulfur atoms (S(3P) and S(1D)) has been made. In the present study, we have employed the two-photon laser-induced fluorescence (2P-LIF) technique to detect S(3P) and S(1D) directly and recorded the time profiles of the atoms at varying pressures of OCS. Kinetic analyses of the profiles show that (i) S(1D) is generated in the O(1D) + OCS reaction and consumed by the S(1D) + OCS reaction, and (ii) S(3P) is mainly generated in the O(1D) + OCS reaction instead of quenching of S(1D) by collisions with OCS and ambient gases. The vibrational levels v = 19 and 10 of the respective electronic states X3Σg- and a1Δg of S2 were detected in the O3/OCS/266 nm system. The two vibrational levels cannot be generated by the available energy of the S(3P) + OCS reaction, giving evidence that S2 in the X3Σg- and a1Δg states are generated by the S(1D) + OCS reaction.