Quantifying treatment system resilience to shock loadings in constructed wetlands and denitrification bioreactors.

Wastewater treatment ecotechnologies such as constructed wetlands and denitrifying bioreactors are commonly perceived as robust and resilient to shock loading, but this has proved difficult to quantify, particularly when comparing different systems. This study proposes a method of quantifying and comparing performance resilience in response to a standard disturbance. In a side-by-side study we compare the treatment performance of four different configurations of wetlands and denitrifying bioreactors subjected to hydraulic shock loads of five times the standard inflow rate of primary treated sewage for five days. The systems consist of: horizontal-flow gravel-bed wetlands (HG); single pass vertical-flow sand or gravel media wetlands followed by carbonaceous denitrifying bioreactors (VS + C and VG + C respectively); and a recirculating anoxic attached-growth bioreactor and vertical sand media wetland followed by carbonaceous denitrifying bioreactors (R(A + VS)+C). Resilience was quantified for Total Suspended Solids (TSS), Five-day Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD5) and Total Nitrogen (TN) by time integration of Relative Disturbance in Performance relative to pre-shock loading performance (days equivalent Performance Reduction), and by the Recovery Time after shock loading ceased. The quantification method allowed an unbiased comparison of the four different systems. It highlighted important differences in the resilience for different removal mechanisms associated with the configuration of the wetlands/bioreactor systems. Relative Disturbances in Performance were expressed in comparison to percent daily removal under standard loading, and, for the different pollutants were equivalent to loss of between 0.08 and 2.51 days of removal capacity. Average Recovery Times ranged from zero to three days, with all systems exhibiting substantial recovery even during the five-day shock loading period. This study demonstrated that both the horizontal gravel wetland and the vertical flow wetland systems combined with carbonaceous bioreactors tested are generally resilient to shock loading of five times hydraulic and organic loading for periods of up to five days. Standard quantification of performance resilience to shock loadings or other perturbations has potential application across a wide range of technologies and research fields.

Fecal Bacteria, Bacteriophage, and Nutrient Reductions in a Full-Scale Denitrifying Woodchip Bioreactor.

Denitrifying bioreactors using woodchips or other slow-release carbon sources can be an effective method for removing nitrate (NO) from wastewater and tile drainage. However, the ability of these systems to remove fecal microbes from wastewater has been largely uninvestigated. In this study, reductions in fecal indicator bacteria () and viruses (F-specific RNA bacteriophage [FRNA phage]) were analyzed by monthly sampling along a longitudinal transect within a full-scale denitrifying woodchip bioreactor receiving secondary-treated septic tank effluent. Nitrogen, phosphorus, 5-d carbonaceous biochemical oxygen demand (CBOD), and total suspended solids (TSS) reduction were also assessed. The bioreactor demonstrated consistent and substantial reduction of (2.9 log reduction) and FRNA phage (3.9 log reduction) despite receiving highly fluctuating inflow concentrations [up to 3.5 × 10 MPN (100 mL) and 1.1 × 10 plaque-forming units (100 mL) , respectively]. Most of the removal of fecal microbial contaminants occurred within the first meter of the system (1.4 log reduction for ; 1.8 log reduction for FRNA phage). The system was also efficient at removing NO (>99.9% reduction) and TSS (89% reduction). There was no evidence of consistent removal of ammonium, organic nitrogen, or phosphorus. Leaching of CBOD occurred during initial operation but decreased and stabilized at lower values (14 g O m) after 9 mo. We present strong evidence for reliable microbial contaminant removal in denitrifying bioreactors, demonstrating their broader versatility for wastewater treatment. Research on the removal mechanisms of microbial contaminants in these systems, together with the assessment of longevity of removal, is warranted.

Floating Treatment Wetland influences on the fate of metals in road runoff retention ponds.

A field trial comparing the fate of metals in two parallel stormwater retention ponds, one of which was retrofitted with a Floating Treatment Wetland (FTW), was carried out near Auckland, New Zealand. Results suggest that the FTW increased metal accumulation in the pond sediment especially in summer due to lower sediment Eh, more anoxic water column, neutral pH and greater source of organic matter (OM) induced by the FTW. These factors combined with higher temperature enhanced metal sorption onto OM, flocculation of particulate pollutants, metal sulphide formation and reduced OM degradation and thus limited release of metals. Unlike Zn, Cu speciation in the pond sediment was relatively unchanged under various sediment Eh conditions due to its strong binding property with sulphide and OM. Occasional moderate metal release was detected from the FTW pond sediment likely due to aerobic OM degradation at the beginning of spring and/or hydroxides reduction when sediments became reduced later in the season. No release was noticed from the conventional pond sediment likely due to biosorption and/or uptake by algae which developed in the conventional pond and settled on the bottom sediment. Direct uptake by the plants of the FTW and sorption onto root plaques are not thought to be significant removal pathways. Nevertheless roots play a major role in trapping particulate pollutants, eventually sloughing off to settle on the bottom of the pond, and provide an adequate substrate for bacterial development due to release of organic compounds which are both essential for dissolved metal sorption and metal sulphide formation.

Stormwater nitrogen removal performance of a floating treatment wetland.

The nitrogen (N) removal efficiency and effluent quality of two parallel stormwater retention ponds, one retrofitted with a floating treatment wetland (FTW) and one without any vegetation, was compared in a field trial. This study shows that inclusion of FTWs in stormwater retention ponds has potential to moderately improve N removal. Median FTW outlet event mean concentrations (EMCs) were lower than median inlet and control pond outlet EMCs for all species of N, except for NH(4)-N. Performance was statistically better from late spring to end autumn due to higher organic nitrogen (ON) removal and denitrification in presence of the FTW. Low dissolved oxygen (DO), higher temperature and increased organic matter (OM) and microbial activity below the FTW, likely facilitated the higher denitrification rates observed over this period. Greater sediment N accumulation in the FTW pond also contributed to its higher overall N removal. Higher OM availability in the FTW pond due to release of root exudates and supply of detritus from plant die-back may have contributed to floc formation in the water column, increasing particulate ON settlement. Enhanced ON mineralisation may also be responsible but was probably limited in summer due to the low DO induced by the FTW. Direct uptake by the plants appears to be of less importance.

Regression analysis of growth responses to water depth in three wetland plant species.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Plant species composition in wetlands and on lakeshores often shows dramatic zonation, which is frequently ascribed to differences in flooding tolerance. This study compared the growth responses to water depth of three species (Phormium tenax, Carex secta and Typha orientalis) differing in depth preferences in wetlands, using non-linear and quantile regression analyses to establish how flooding tolerance can explain field zonation. METHODOLOGY: Plants were established for 8 months in outdoor cultures in waterlogged soil without standing water, and then randomly allocated to water depths from 0 to 0.5 m. Morphological and growth responses to depth were followed for 54 days before harvest, and then analysed by repeated-measures analysis of covariance, and non-linear and quantile regression analysis (QRA), to compare flooding tolerances. PRINCIPAL RESULTS: Growth responses to depth differed between the three species, and were non-linear. Phormium tenax growth decreased rapidly in standing water >0.25 m depth, C. secta growth increased initially with depth but then decreased at depths >0.30 m, accompanied by increased shoot height and decreased shoot density, and T. orientalis was unaffected by the 0- to 0.50-m depth range. In P. tenax the decrease in growth was associated with a decrease in the number of leaves produced per ramet and in C. secta the effect of water depth was greatest for the tallest shoots. Allocation patterns were unaffected by depth. CONCLUSIONS: The responses are consistent with the principle that zonation in the field is primarily structured by competition in shallow water and by physiological flooding tolerance in deep water. Regression analyses, especially QRA, proved to be powerful tools in distinguishing genuine phenotypic responses to water depth from non-phenotypic variation due to size and developmental differences.

Multiyear nutrient removal performance of three constructed wetlands intercepting tile drain flows from grazed pastures.

Subsurface tile drain flows can be a major s ource of nurient loss from agricultural landscapes. This study quantifies flows and nitrogen and phosphorus yields from tile drains at three intensively grazed dairy pasture sites over 3- to 5-yr periods and evaluates the capacity of constructed wetlands occupying 0.66 to 1.6% of the drained catchments too reduce nutrient loads. Continuous flow records are combined with automated flow-proportional sampling of nutrient concentrations to calculate tile drain nutrient yields and wetland mass removal rates. Annual drainage water yields rangedfrom 193 to 564 mm (16-51% of rainfall) at two rain-fed sites and from 827 to 853 mm (43-51% of rainfall + irrigation) at an irrigated site. Annually, the tile drains exported 14 to 109 kg ha(-1) of total N (TN), of which 58 to 90% was nitrate-N. Constructed wetlands intercepting these flows removed 30 to 369 gTN m(-2) (7-63%) of influent loadings annually. Seasonal percentage nitrate-N and TN removal were negatively associated with wetland N mass loadings. Wetland P removal was poor in all wetlands, with 12 to 115% more total P exported annually overall than received. Annually, the tile drains exported 0.12 to 1.38 kg ha of total P, of which 15 to 93% was dissolved reactive P. Additional measures are required to reduce these losses or provide supplementary P removal. Wetland N removal performance could be improved by modifying drainage systems to release flows more gradually and improving irrigation practices to reduce drainage losses.