The Relationship between Second-to-Fourth Digit Ratios, Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Symptoms, Aggression, and Intelligence Levels in Boys with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder.

OBJECTIVE: Observations of sex differences have led some scientists to doubt whether the neuroendocrine system is involved in attentiondeficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) etiology. One of the interesting study subjects in this context is prenatal steroid hormone exposure. The aim of the present study was to replicate and extend previous work by addressing two research questions: 1) Are second-tofourth digit (2D:4D) ratios lower in ADHD than in controls? 2) Is there a correlation between 2D:4D ratios and symptoms of ADHD, aggression and intelligence scores in boys with ADHD? METHODS: The study included 100 treatment-naive male children diagnosed with ADHD and 55 healthy male children. We measured the ratios of 2D:4D and administered a Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Revised to assess IQ scores, as well as behavioral rating scales, in children with ADHD and comparison individuals. RESULTS: We observed lower 2D:4D ratios in the right hand in ADHD in comparison to the control group. The left-hand ratios of 2D:4D, however, did not differ between ADHD and control groups. There were negative correlations between the left-hand 2D:4D ratios and the hyperactivity scores. However, no significant correlation was detected between right-hand 2D:4D ratios and the psychological questionnaire scores. CONCLUSION: These results provide further evidence that fetal androgen exposure may contribute to the pathophysiology of ADHD, at least in boys.

A Case of Risperidone Induced Stuttering as a Paradox.

The main feature of stuttering is the disturbance in terms of both timing and fluency of speech inappropriate with the age. This disturbance is characterized with the repetition and prolongation of sounds and syllables. There are two types of stuttering as acquired and developmental. Acquired stuttering may begin suddenly at any age and may be seen rarely due to the adverse effects of drugs. Stuttering induced by antipsychotics may develop very rarely. Risperidone is a strong antagonist of dopamin 2 (D2) and serotonin 2A (5 HT2A) and shows a high affinity for α1 and α2 noradrenaline receptors. It's used in a wide spectrum including psychotic disorders, mood disorders, and behavioral disorders, even for the treatment of stuttering. Risperidone treats the symptoms of stuttering by the antagonism of D2 receptors with an increase in striatal metabolism. In literature, we haven't observed any other case reports except the two stuttering cases with psychotic disorders due to the short term and high-dose risperidone treatment. In our case, stuttering adverse effect of chronic low-dose risperidone treatment is remarkable that is discussed for the first time. As well as the use of risperidone for the treatment of stuttering, stuttering adverse effect seems to be interesting as a paradox.