Effects of Silirum®-Based Vaccination Programs on Map Fecal Shedding and Serological Response in Seven French Dairy Herds.

(1) Background: paratuberculosis is an important disease in ruminants, causing worldwide economic losses to the livestock industry. Although vaccination is known not to prevent transmission of the causative agent Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis (Map), it is considered an effective tool for paratuberculosis in infected herds. The objectives of this controlled field study were to evaluate the effects of the whole-cell heat-killed Silirum® vaccine on Map fecal shedding and serological status in dairy herds infected with paratuberculosis. (2) Methods: The serological status (ELISA) and fecal shedding (qPCR) of 358 vaccinated cows were assessed over 3 years in 7 infected dairy herds in the Meuse department, France. Within each herd, cows from the last non-vaccinated birth cohort (n = 265) were used as controls. The probability and level of Map fecal shedding and the serological status were modeled using multivariable mixed general linear regression models. (3) Results: Overall, 34.7% of cows tested positive at least once on fecal qPCR, with significant differences between herds, but high shedding levels were observed in only 5.5% of cows. Compared to non-vaccinated seronegative cows, a statistically significant reduction in the probability of Map shedding was found only in cows vaccinated before 4 to 5 months of age that tested negative for Map antibodies throughout the study period (odds ratio = 0.5, 95% confidence interval: 0.3-0.9, p = 0.008), but no significant effect of vaccination on the amount of Map shedding could be evidenced. Finally, the younger the cows were when vaccinated, the less they tested positive on the serum ELISA. (4) Conclusions: a beneficial effect of vaccination on Map fecal shedding may exist in cows vaccinated before 4 to 5 months of age. The variability of the serum ELISA response in vaccinated cows remains to be investigated.

Local immunization impacts the response of dairy cows to Escherichia coli mastitis.

Current vaccines to Escherichia coli mastitis have shown some albeit limited efficacy. Their mode of action has not been documented, and immune responses protecting the mammary gland against E. coli are not completely understood. To improve our knowledge of mammary gland immune protection, cows immunized either intramuscularly or intramammarily with the E. coli P4 were submitted to a homologous mastitis challenge. A third group of mock-immunized cows serve as challenge controls. Local immunization modified favorably the course of infection, by improving bacterial clearance while limiting inflammation. Systemic clinical signs and reduction in milk secretion were also contained. This occurred with a modification of the cytokine profile, such as an increase in IFN-γ and a reduction in TNF-α concentrations in milk. Concentrations of IL-17A and IL-22 increased in milk at the onset of the inflammatory response and remained high up to the elimination of bacteria, but concentrations did not differ between groups. Accelerated bacteriological cure was not linked to an increase in the initial efficiency of phagocytosis in milk. Results support the idea that antibodies did not play a major role in the improvement, and that cell-mediated immunity is the key to understanding E. coli vaccine-induced protection of the mammary gland.

A Point Mutation in Suppressor of Cytokine Signalling 2 (Socs2) Increases the Susceptibility to Inflammation of the Mammary Gland while Associated with Higher Body Weight and Size and Higher Milk Production in a Sheep Model.

Mastitis is an infectious disease mainly caused by bacteria invading the mammary gland. Genetic control of susceptibility to mastitis has been widely evidenced in dairy ruminants, but the genetic basis and underlying mechanisms are still largely unknown. We describe the discovery, fine mapping and functional characterization of a genetic variant associated with elevated milk leukocytes count, or SCC, as a proxy for mastitis. After implementing genome-wide association studies, we identified a major QTL associated with SCC on ovine chromosome 3. Fine mapping of the region, using full sequencing with 12X coverage in three animals, provided one strong candidate SNP that mapped to the coding sequence of a highly conserved gene, suppressor of cytokine signalling 2 (Socs2). The frequency of the SNP associated with increased SCC was 21.7% and the Socs2 genotype explained 12% of the variance of the trait. The point mutation induces the p.R96C substitution in the SH2 functional domain of SOCS2 i.e. the binding site of the protein to various ligands, as well-established for the growth hormone receptor GHR. Using surface plasmon resonance we showed that the p.R96C point mutation completely abrogates SOCS2 binding affinity for the phosphopeptide of GHR. Additionally, the size, weight and milk production in p.R96C homozygote sheep, were significantly increased by 24%, 18%, and 4.4%, respectively, when compared to wild type sheep, supporting the view that the point mutation causes a loss of SOCS2 functional activity. Altogether these results provide strong evidence for a causal mutation controlling SCC in sheep and highlight the major role of SOCS2 as a tradeoff between the host's inflammatory response to mammary infections, and body growth and milk production, which are all mediated by the JAK/STAT signaling pathway.

Alloantibodies against MHC class I: a novel mechanism of neonatal pancytopenia linked to vaccination.

Fetal/neonatal alloimmune thrombocytopenia is a frequent disease in humans where alloantibodies against platelet Ags lead to platelet destruction and hemorrhage. Although a role in the disease for Abs against MHC has been suspected, this has not been formally demonstrated. Since 2007, a hemorrhagic syndrome due to thrombocytopenia and designated as bovine neonatal pancytopenia (BNP) has been recognized in calves in several European countries. An inactivated antiviral vaccine is strongly suspected to be involved in this syndrome because of its highly frequent use in the dams of affected calves. In this study, we show that BNP is an alloimmune disease, as we reproduced the signs by transferring serum Abs from vaccinated BNP dams into healthy neonatal calves. Ab specificity was strongly associated with the presence of allogeneic MHC class I Abs in the dams. MHC class I staining was also observed on Madin-Darby bovine kidney cells, a cell line related to the one used to produce the vaccine Ag. Our report emphatically demonstrates that alloimmunization against MHC class I is associated with a substantial risk of developing cytopenia-associated syndromes in neonates when a cell line of the same species is used to produce an inactivated vaccine injected into the mother.

Gene expression profiling of dendritic cells reveals important mechanisms associated with predisposition to Staphylococcus infections.

BACKGROUND: Staphylococcus aureus is a major pathogen of humans and animals and emerging antibiotic-resistant strains have further increased the concern of this health issue. Host genetics influence susceptibility to S. aureus infections, and the genes determining the outcome of infections should be identified to find alternative therapies to treatment with antibiotics. Here, we used outbred animals from a divergent selection based on susceptibility towards Staphylococcus infection to explore host immunogenetics. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: We investigated how dendritic cells respond to heat-inactivated S. aureus and whether dendritic cells from animals showing different degrees of susceptibility had distinct gene expression profiles. We measured gene expression levels of in vitro S. aureus-stimulated bone marrow-derived dendritic cells at three different time points (0, 3 and 8 hrs) by using 15 k ovine Agilent microarrays. Furthermore, differential expression of a selected number of genes was confirmed by RT-qPCR. Gene signatures of stimulated DCs were obtained and showed that genes involved in the inflammatory process and T helper cell polarization were highly up-regulated upon stimulation. Moreover, a set of 204 genes were statistically differentially expressed between susceptible and resistant animals, and grouped them according to their predisposition to staphylococcal infection. Interestingly, over-expression of the C1q and Ido1 genes was observed in the resistant line and suggested a role of classical pathway of complement and early regulation of inflammation pathways, respectively. On the contrary, over expression of genes involved in the IL1R pathway was observed in susceptible animals. Furthermore, the leucocyte extravasation pathway was also found to be dominant in the susceptible line. CONCLUSION/SIGNIFICANCE: We successfully obtained Staphylococcus aureus associated gene expression of ovine BM-DC in an 8-hour kinetics experiment. The distinct transcriptional profiles of dendritic cells obtained from resistant and susceptible animals may explain susceptibility towards S. aureus infections in a broader context.

Transcriptomic analysis of milk somatic cells in mastitis resistant and susceptible sheep upon challenge with Staphylococcus epidermidis and Staphylococcus aureus.

BACKGROUND: The existence of a genetic basis for host responses to bacterial intramammary infections has been widely documented, but the underlying mechanisms and the genes are still largely unknown. Previously, two divergent lines of sheep selected for high/low milk somatic cell scores have been shown to be respectively susceptible and resistant to intramammary infections by Staphylococcus spp. Transcriptional profiling with an 15K ovine-specific microarray of the milk somatic cells of susceptible and resistant sheep infected successively by S. epidermidis and S. aureus was performed in order to enhance our understanding of the molecular and cellular events associated with mastitis resistance. RESULTS: The bacteriological titre was lower in the resistant than in the susceptible animals in the 48 hours following inoculation, although milk somatic cell concentration was similar. Gene expression was analysed in milk somatic cells, mainly represented by neutrophils, collected 12 hours post-challenge. A high number of differentially expressed genes between the two challenges indicated that more T cells are recruited upon inoculation by S. aureus than S. epidermidis. A total of 52 genes were significantly differentially expressed between the resistant and susceptible animals. Further Gene Ontology analysis indicated that differentially expressed genes were associated with immune and inflammatory responses, leukocyte adhesion, cell migration, and signal transduction. Close biological relationships could be established between most genes using gene network analysis. Furthermore, gene expression suggests that the cell turn-over, as a consequence of apoptosis/granulopoiesis, may be enhanced in the resistant line when compared to the susceptible line. CONCLUSIONS: Gene profiling in resistant and susceptible lines has provided good candidates for mapping the biological pathways and genes underlying genetically determined resistance and susceptibility towards Staphylococcus infections, and opens new fields for further investigation.

Simultaneous inactivation of espB and tir abrogates the strong, but non-protective, inflammatory response induced by EPEC.

Enteropathogenic Escherichia coli (EPEC) belong to the attaching and effacing (A/E) family of bacterial pathogens that represent a worldwide health concern. These non-invasive bacteria attach to intestinal enterocytes through a type III secretion system (T3SS), leading to intestinal inflammation and severe diarrhea. To dissect the signals leading to the induction of the inflammatory response and to understand its role in the pathogenesis of infection, we used the rabbit model, which represents a close model of human infections. Rabbits were orally inoculated with either the wild type O103:K-:H2 E22 EPEC strain or with the E22Δtir/espB strain, which bears mutations in two genes involved in the injectisome structure and function. To monitor the development of the inflammatory response, we developed a quantitative real-time RT-PCR (qPCR) assay specific for a panel of rabbit genes. Using combined immunohistochemistry and qPCR, we show here that the inflammatory response triggered by wild type EPEC occurs very early, preceding the bacterial colonization of the epithelium. However, this early response is unable to prevent bacterial attachment on enterocytes. Moreover, our results show that expression of a complete bacterial injectisome is required for the development of inflammation. Finally, infection by the virulent strain, but not by the doubly mutated strain, rapidly induces the development of a specific immune response in the mesenteric lymph nodes, which is not associated with protection. Our findings suggest that the induction of a strong inflammatory response by T3SS dependent components represents a selective advantage for T3SS+ bacteria, thereby facilitating their colonization.

Testing the efficacy of medium chain fatty acids against rabbit colibacillosis.

Enteropathogenic Escherichia coli (EPEC) represents a major cause of lethal diarrhea in young mammals. Although the pathogenicity mechanisms of EPEC are now well understood, the intrinsic and environmental factors that control the expression of EPEC virulence remain largely unknown. In the rabbit, suckling reduces pups' sensitivity to EPEC infection. Hence, we have hypothesized that uncharacterized factors present in doe milk may mediate this protection. Medium chain fatty acids (MCFA), known to possess antimicrobial properties, are highly abundant in doe milk. We demonstrate that caprylic acid exhibits a clear bacteriostatic effect in vitro against the rabbit EPEC strain E22 (O103:H2:K-), in a dose-dependent manner. In vivo, the dietary inclusion of triglycerides of MCFA did not however reduce the sensitivity of young rabbits challenged with this EPEC strain. The mortality and fecal excretion of EPEC were not reduced, and the bacterial adhesion to ileum was not inhibited. Amount of MCFA reaching the ileal level might have been too low and/or their association to other milk antimicrobials may have been required to observe a positive effect on disease evolution in a context of a highly virulent challenge.

Maternal milk contains antimicrobial factors that protect young rabbits from enteropathogenic Escherichia coli infection.

Enteropathogenic Escherichia coli (EPEC) colibacillosis represents a major cause of lethal diarrhea in young children in developing countries. EPEC strains also infect numerous mammal species and represent a major economical problem in rabbit industry. Protection against this pathogen is a challenging goal both in humans and in other mammal species. Despite a good knowledge of the pathogenicity mechanisms of EPEC, the intrinsic and environmental factors that control the expression of EPEC virulence in mammals remain unknown. For instance, the exacerbated sensitivity of young mammals to EPEC infection is still unexplained. Our goal was to investigate if age or other factors, like milk consumption, could be determinants that trigger the disease. We used rabbits as an animal model to study the role of milk in the sensitivity to an EPEC infection. Weaned and suckling rabbits were orally inoculated with EPEC strain E22 (O103:H2:K-) at 28 days of age, and the evolution of the disease was investigated in the two groups. In addition, in order to better characterize the interactions between milk and EPEC, we determined in vitro bacterial growth and the abilities of EPEC cells to adhere to epithelial cells in the presence of milk. Our results demonstrate a protective role of milk in vivo in association with in vitro antibacterial activity. These effects are independent of the presence of specific anti-EPEC antibodies.

Genetically engineered enteropathogenic Escherichia coli strain elicits a specific immune response and protects against a virulent challenge.

Enteropathogenic Escherichia coli (EPEC), a major cause of severe disease with diarrhea in infants, is also involved in weaned rabbit colibacillosis. EPEC O103 is frequent in rabbit-fattening units of Western Europe. It causes high mortality and growth retardation, leading to substantial economic losses. We report here the construction by allelic exchange of an EPEC O103 strain mutated in espB and tir, two essential virulence genes. Upon live oral administration to weaned rabbits, the E22DeltaTir/EspB mutant strain efficiently colonized the intestinal tract without any adverse consequences. The rabbits were challenged with the highly pathogenic parental strain E22. The mutant provided complete protection to rabbits and total resistance to intestinal colonization by E22. In addition, E22DeltaTir/EspB strain induced a specific humoral response against the bacterial adhesin AF/R2. These Abs prevent bacterial attachment to epithelial cells in vitro. These results open the way for the development of an efficient vaccine strategy against rabbit EPEC infections.

New flow cytometric method to quantify the inhibition of enteropathogenic Escherichia coli adhesion by anti-adhesin antibodies.

BACKGROUND: Pathogenesis of enteropathogenic Escherichia coli (EPEC) infections can be divided in three stages. The first one is the intestinal colonization mediated by bacterial adhesins. The second and third stages are characterized by an intimate attachment of bacteria to the enterocytes. Little information is available on the specific immune response against EPEC. Here, we describe and validate a new approach to quantify the function of anti-EPEC adhesin antibodies (Abs). METHODS: We developed a new method to quantify the function of anti-adhesin Abs by flow cytometry. We used pEGFP-E22 (a rabbit EPEC E22 strain expressing the GFP protein) and HeLa cells. The adhesion of E22 bacteria to HeLa cells is mediated by AF/R2, the specific E22 adhesin. We performed short-time interaction (30 min) between pEGFP-E22 and HeLa cells. After extensive washes, 10,000 HeLa cells were acquired by flow cytometry and bacterial adhesion was quantified. Different sera were used to inhibit bacterial adhesion and recombinant MPB-Afr2G (Afr2G is the main AF/R2 subunit) was also tested in this system. RESULTS: We first verified that GFP expression by E22 did not modify bacterial adhesion. We then showed that this flow cytometry approach allowed easy quantification of bacterial adhesion and inhibition mediated by a specific anti-AF/R2 serum. Moreover, recombinant AF/R2 protein reversed the effect of the anti-AF/R2 serum. Finally, we validated our method using sera from E22 orally infected rabbits. We detected and quantified with this method functional specific anti-AF/R2 Abs in their sera. In addition, we correlated our results with an anti-AF/R2 enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. CONCLUSIONS: We have developed a new method to detect and quantify specific anti-EPEC adhesin Abs by flow cytometry. This method is easy to use and highly reproducible. Its development could be extended to the search of specific anti-adhesin Abs in human EPEC infections.