The Effect of 12 Hz Extremely Low-frequency Electromagnetic Field on Visual Memory of Male Macaque Monkeys.

Introduction: Today, humans live in a world surrounded by electromagnetic fields. Numerous studies have been conducted to discover the biological, physiological, and behavioral effects of electromagnetic fields on humans and animals. Given the biological similarities between monkeys and humans, The present research aimed to examine Visual Memory (VM), hormonal, genomic, and anatomic changes, in the male rhesus macaques exposed to an Extremely Low-Frequency Magnetic Field (ELF-MF). Methods: Four male rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) were used. For the behavioral tests, the animals should be fasting for 17 hours. For the tests such as visual memory, the animal's cooperation was necessary. Using the radiation protocol, we exposed two monkeys to a 12-Hz electromagnetic field with a magnitude of 0.7 µT (electromagnetic radiation) four hours a day for a month. Before and after the exposure, a visual memory test was conducted using a coated device (visible reward) on a movable stand. Ten milliliters of blood was obtained from the femoral artery of each monkey, and half of it was used to examine cortisol serum levels using the MyBioSource kit (made in the USA). The other half of the blood was used to extract lymphocytes for assaying expressions of Glucocorticoid Receptor (GR) genes before and after radiation using the PCR method. Anatomic studies of the amygdala were carried out based on pre- and post-radiation Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI). Results: Research results indicated that visual memory in male primates increased significantly after exposure to the 12-Hz frequency. Hormonal analysis at the 12-Hz frequency showed a decrease in cortisol serum levels. However, visual memory and serum cortisol levels did not change considerably in male primates in the control group. There was no considerable amygdala volumetric difference after exposure to the 12-Hz frequency. The expression of the GR genes decreased in the 12-Hz group compared to the control group. Conclusion: In short, these results indicated that ELF might benefit memory enhancement because exposure to the 12-HZ ELF can enhance visual memory. This outcome may be due to a decrease in plasma cortisol and or expression of GR genes. Moreover, direct amygdala involvement in this regard cannot be recommended. Highlights: The effects of Extremely Low-Frequency Electromagnetic Fields (ELF-EMF) of 12 Hz on monkeys were studied.The results showed a reduction in the serum cortisol levels and the expression of GR genes.The amygdala anatomical area changes were not significant in the experimental group.In the experimental group, visual memory (delay of 30- and 60-s evaluation) improved after exposure to a frequency of 12 Hz. Plain Language Summary: Extremely low-frequency electromagnetic fields are among the most important factors affecting humans. This study aimed to determine the fields of 12-Hz frequency on the visual memory changes of male monkeys. The importance of research is due to the cognitive similarity of monkeys to humans. The findings of the research can be attributed to humans. Behavioral, hormonal, genetic, and anatomical studies indicated improvement in visual memory (test monkeys versus control monkeys). This study demonstrates the effect of the 12-Hz frequency on the monkey's visual memory. Researchers can study 12-Hz frequency in other cognitive indices.

Changes in Cognitive Functions Following Violent and Football Video Games in Young Male Volunteers by Studying Brain Waves.

INTRODUCTION: This research investigated the effects of violent and football video games on cognitive functions, cortisol levels, and brain waves. METHODS: A total of 64 participants competed in a single-elimination tournament. Saliva samples of all players were obtained before and after the games for the assessment of cortisol levels. The cognitive performances of the players were also assessed by paced auditory serial addition test. Moreover, the electroencephalogram recording was conducted during the games. RESULTS: The results showed that salivary cortisol levels significantly decreased after playing both games. Also, playing the football game increased reaction time, whereas decreased sustained attention and mental fatigue. CONCLUSION: Conversely, following playing a violent game, the reaction time decreased, and sustained attention and mental fatigue increased. Furthermore, the results of the EEG recording revealed that playing a violent game engaged more brain regions than the football game. In conclusion, playing violent game more effectively improved cognitive performances in the players than the football game.

Effects of the Extremely Low Frequency Electromagnetic Fields on NMDA-Receptor Gene Expression and Visual Working Memory in Male Rhesus Macaques.

INTRODUCTION: The present research aimed to examine Visual Working Memory (VWM) test scores, as well as hormonal, genomic, and brain anatomic changes in the male rhesus macaques exposed to Extremely Low Frequency Magnetic Field (ELF-MF). METHODS: Four monkeys were exposed to two different ELF-MF frequencies: 1 Hz (control) and 12 Hz (experiment) with 0.7 µT (magnitude) 4 h/d for 30 consecutive days. Before and after the exposure, VWM test was conducted using a coated devise on a movable stand. About 10 mL of the animals' blood was obtained from their femoral vain and used to evaluate their melatonin concentration. Blood lymphocytes were used for assaying the expressions of N-Methyl-D-aspartate NMDA-receptor genes expression before and after ELF exposure. Anatomical changes of hippocampus size were also assessed using MRI images. RESULTS: Results indicated that VWM scores in primates exposed to 12 Hz frequency ELF increased significantly. Plasma melatonin level was also increased in these animals. However, these variables did not change in the animals exposed to 1 Hz ELF. At last, expression of the NMDA receptors increased at exposure to 12 Hz frequency. However, hippocampal volume did not increase significantly in the animals exposed to both frequencies. CONCLUSION: In short, these results indicate that ELF (12 Hz) may have a beneficial value for memory enhancement (indicated by the increase in VWM scores). This may be due to an increase in plasma melatonin and or expression of NMDA glutamate receptors. However, direct involvement of the hippocampus in this process needs more research.

Role of basal stress hormones and amygdala dimensions in stress coping strategies of male rhesus monkeys in response to a hazard-reward conflict.

OBJECTIVES: In the present study the effect of stress on monkeys that had learned to retrieve food from a five-chamber receptacle, as well as the relationship between their behavior and the serum cortisol and epinephrine levels and relative size of the amygdala was evaluated. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Six male rhesus monkeys were individually given access to the food reward orderly. They could easily retrieve the rewards from all chambers except for the chamber 4, which a brief, mild electric shock (3 V) was delivered to them upon touching the chamber's interior. The coping behaviors were video-recorded and analyzed offline. Baseline serum cortisol and epinephrine levels were measured before the experiments using monkey enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay kit. One week after the behavioral experiment, the monkeys' brains were scanned using magnetic resonance imaging under general anesthesia. The cross-sectional area of the left amygdala in sagittal plane relative to the area of the whole brain in the same slice was evaluated by the planimetric method using ImageJ software. RESULTS: Exposure to the distressing condition caused different behavioral responses. Monkeys with higher baseline levels of serum cortisol and epinephrine and larger amygdala behaved more violently in the face of stress, indicating adopting emotion-focused stress-coping strategies. Conversely, those with low plasma epinephrine, moderate cortisol, and smaller amygdala showed perseverative behavior, indicating a problem-focused coping style. CONCLUSION: In dealing with the same stress, different responses might be observed from nonhuman primates according to their cortisol and epinephrine levels as well as their amygdala dimensions.

Evaluation of placental epigenetic changes due to morphine consumption / Evaluación de cambios epigenéticos de la placenta por consumo de morfina

Based on previous studies, a variety of bioenvironmental elements including inappropriate nutrition, diseases, infections, stressors, and medications are involved in epigenetic changes. Drug abuse is one of the most important causes of epigenetic changes and a concern in today's world. Studies have shown that morphine use by pregnant mothers causes several disorders in mothers in addition to transferring abnormalities to the next generation (placenta and embryo). Epigenetic factors such as morphine cause changes in gene expression in placenta as the first embryonic defense barrier. Because placenta does all the nutritional exchanges between mother's and embryo's blood, placental health guarantees normal embryonic development. Many studies have been conducted on defects caused by epigenetic factors including medication use. Opioid abuse including morphine abuse has endangered health of many people. Morphine changes gene expression by binding to opioid receptors on placental villi. Based on the studies, major epigenetic changes due to drug use are mediated by DNA methylation and histone changes. Recognizing different epigenetic factors and their effect on placental and embryonic development is among modern studies. The importance of recognizing epigenetic changes caused by drug abuse by pregnant mothers can be the most important way to prevent adulthood diseases in the embryo and in some cases miscarriage. Changes induced by epigenetic factors can be moderated or reversed by controlling the epigenetic factors. This study is a review of changes caused by morphine use by pregnant rats on development of placenta.

Basado en estudios anteriores, una variedad de elementos bioambientales incluyendo la nutrición inadecuada, enfermedades, infecciones, factores de estrés, y los medicamentos están involucrados en los cambios epigenéticos. El abuso de drogas es una de las causas más importantes de los cambios epigenéticos y una preocupación en el mundo actual. Los estudios han demostrado que el uso de la morfina por parte de las madres embarazadas es la causa de varios trastornos en las madres, además de la transferencia de anormalidades a la siguiente generación (la placenta y el embrión). Factores epigenéticos como la morfina causan cambios en la expresión génica en la placenta como la primera barrera de defensa embrionaria. Debido a que la placenta es el medio de todos los intercambios nutricionales entre la madre y la sangre del embrión, la salud de la placenta garantiza el desarrollo embrionario normal. Muchos estudios se han realizado sobre los defectos causados por factores epigenéticos que incluyen el uso de medicamentos. El abuso de opioides, incluyendo la morfina ha puesto en peligro la salud de muchas personas. La morfina produce cambios de expresión génica mediante la unión a los receptores opioides en vellosidades placentarias. Basado en los estudios, los principales cambios epigenéticos debido al consumo de drogas están mediadas por metilación del ADN y los cambios en las histonas. En la actualidad se han publicado estudios referente al conocimiento de diferentes factores epigenéticos y su efecto sobre la placenta y el desarrollo embrionario. La importancia de reconocer los cambios epigenéticos causados por el abuso de drogas por mujeres embarazadas puede ser la forma más importante para prevenir las enfermedades de la edad adulta en el embrión y en algunos casos del aborto espontáneo. Los cambios inducidos por factores epigenéticos pueden ser moderados o revertidos mediante el control de los factores epigenéticos. Este estudio es una revisión de los cambios en el desarrollo de la placenta causados por el uso de morfina en ratas preñadas.

The Effects of Fifa 2015 Computer Games on Changes in Cognitive, Hormonal and Brain Waves Functions of Young Men Volunteers.

INTRODUCTION: Computer games have attracted remarkable attentions in general publics with different cultures and their effects are subject of research by cognitive neuroscientists. In the present study, possible effects of the game Fifa 2015 on cognitive performance, hormonal levels, and electroencephalographic (EEG) signals were evaluated in young male volunteers. METHODS: Thirty two subjects aged 20 years on average participated mutually in playing computer game Fifa 2015. Identification information and general knowledge about the game were collected. Saliva samples from the contestants were obtained before and after the competition. Perceptive and cognitive performance including the general cognitive health, response delay, attention maintenance, and mental fatigue were measured using PASAT test. EEG were recorded during the play using EEG device and analyzed later using QEEG. Simultaneously, the players' behavior were recorded using a video camera. Saliva cortisol levels were assessed by ELISA kit. Data were analyzed by SPSS program. RESULTS: The impact of playing computer games on cortisol concentration of saliva before and after the game showed that the amount of saliva plasma after playing the game has dropped significantly. Also the impact of playing computer games on mental health, before and after the game indicated that the number of correct answers has not changed significantly. This indicates that sustained attention has increased in participants after the game in comparison with before that. Also it is shown that mental fatigue measured by PASAT test, did not changed significantly after the game in comparison to before that. The impact of game on changes in brain waves showed that the subjects in high activity state during playing the game had higher power of the EEG signals in most of the channels in lower frequency bands in compared to normal state. DISCUSSION: The present study showed that computer games can positively affect the stress system and the perceptual-cognitive system. Even though this impact was not significant in most cases, the changes in cognitive and hormonal test and also in brain waves were visible. Hence, due to the importance of this matter, it is necessary to create control systems in selecting the types of games for playing.

Serum IL-10 involved in morphine tolerance development during adjuvant-induced arthritis

Opioid receptors play an important role in modulation of hyperalgesia in inflamed tissues, but chronic morphine application induces such side effects as tolerance. There is near communications between cytokines and mu opioid receptor expression. This study was aimed to assess the role of serum IL-10 in morphine tolerance development during adjuvant-induced arthritis. Adjuvant arthritis (AA) was induced on day 0 by single injection of Complete Freund’s Adjuvant (CFA) into the rats’ hindpaw. Hyperalgesia, edema, and spinal mu opioid receptor (mOR) variations were assessed on 0, 7, 14, and 21 days of the study. For assessment of the morphine tolerance development, morphine effective dose (4 mg/kg) was administered from the 14th day after CFA injection and continued until the morphine post-dose paw withdrawal latency (PWL); it did not significantly differ from the baseline. For assessment of the effects of IL-10 on tolerance induction, a neutralizing dose (ND50) of anti-IL-10 was administered daily during different stages of the study. AA induction in the right hindpaw of rats resulted in unilateral inflammation and hyperalgesia within 21 days of the study. Anti-IL-10 antibody administration in the AA rats induced marked elevation of hyperalgesia compared to the AA control group. Our data also indicated that morphine effective anti-hyperalgesic dose significantly decreased in the AA rats compared to the control group, which this symptom was aligned with spinal mu opioid receptor (mOR) expression increase during AA. Moreover, there was a significant difference in morphine tolerance induction between the AA and control rats, and our results also demonstrated that IL-10 played an important role in tolerance-induction process. It can be concluded that morphine tolerance slowly progressed when administered morphine effective dose was reduced during AA chronic inflammation. On the other hand, it seems that increased level of serum IL-10 may affect morphine tolerance development during inflammation

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Serum IL-10 involved in morphine tolerance development during adjuvant-induced arthritis.

Opioid receptors play an important role in modulation of hyperalgesia in inflamed tissues, but chronic morphine application induces such side effects as tolerance. There is near communications between cytokines and mu opioid receptor expression. This study was aimed to assess the role of serum IL-10 in morphine tolerance development during adjuvant-induced arthritis. Adjuvant arthritis (AA) was induced on day 0 by single injection of Complete Freund's Adjuvant (CFA) into the rats' hindpaw. Hyperalgesia, edema, and spinal mu opioid receptor (mOR) variations were assessed on 0, 7, 14, and 21 days of the study. For assessment of the morphine tolerance development, morphine effective dose (4 mg/kg) was administered from the 14th day after CFA injection and continued until the morphine post-dose paw withdrawal latency (PWL); it did not significantly differ from the baseline. For assessment of the effects of IL-10 on tolerance induction, a neutralizing dose (ND50) of anti-IL-10 was administered daily during different stages of the study. AA induction in the right hindpaw of rats resulted in unilateral inflammation and hyperalgesia within 21 days of the study. Anti-IL-10 antibody administration in the AA rats induced marked elevation of hyperalgesia compared to the AA control group. Our data also indicated that morphine effective anti-hyperalgesic dose significantly decreased in the AA rats compared to the control group, which this symptom was aligned with spinal mu opioid receptor (mOR) expression increase during AA. Moreover, there was a significant difference in morphine tolerance induction between the AA and control rats, and our results also demonstrated that IL-10 played an important role in tolerance-induction process. It can be concluded that morphine tolerance slowly progressed when administered morphine effective dose was reduced during AA chronic inflammation. On the other hand, it seems that increased level of serum IL-10 may affect morphine tolerance development during inflammation.

Relationship between serum IL10 level and p38MAPK enzyme activity on behavioral and cellular aspects of variation of hyperalgesia during different stages of arthritis in rats.

OBJECTS AND DESIGN: Regarding to anti-inflammatory role of interleukin (IL) 10, its inhibitory effects on p38MAPK activity and, different pro and anti-inflammatory roles of activated p38MAPK in cells, this study was aimed to investigate relationship between serum IL10 level and p38MAPK enzyme activity on behavioral and cellular aspects variation of hyperalgesia during different stages of arthritis in rats. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Adjuvant arthritis (AA) was induced by a single subcutaneous injection of complete Freund's adjuvant into the rats' hind paw. Behavioral and inflammatory responses were assessed at 0, 3, 7, 14, and 21 days of study. Receptor and other protein enzyme expression variations were detected by western blotting. Anti-IL10 and p38MAPK inhibitor were administered daily during the 21 days of study. RESULT: Daily treatment with anti-IL10 antibody significantly increased paw edema and hyperalgesia in the AA group compared with the AA control group. Administration of anti-IL10 antibody caused significant increase in the ratio of phosphorylated p38 to p38MAPK enzyme level expression on 14th and 21st days of study compared with the AA control group. CONCLUSION: Our study confirmed that a part of anti- inflammatory effects of serum IL10 during AA inflammation was mediated via inhibition of p38MAPK enzyme phosphorylation. Moreover, these findings suggest that increase in the level of spinal mu opioid receptor expression during AA inflammation is not mediated via the direct effect of serum IL10 on spinal p38MAPK.

Inhibitory Effect of Black and Red Pepper and Thyme Extracts and Essential Oils on Enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli and DNase Activity of Staphylococcus aureus.

In this study, extracts and essential oils of Black and Red pepper and Thyme were tested for antibacterial activity against Escherichia coli O157: H7 and Staphylococcus aureus. Black and Red pepper and Thyme were provided from Iranian agricultural researches center. 2 g of each plant powder was added to 10 cc ethanol 96°. After 24 h, the crude extract was separated as an alcoholic extract and concentrated by distillation method. Plants were examined for determining their major component and essential oils were separated. Phytochemical analyses were done for detection of some effective substances in extracts. The antibacterial activity against Escherichia coli O157: H7 and Staphylococcus aureus was tested and the results showed that all extracts and essential oils were effective and essential oils were more active. The extracts and oils that showed antimicrobial activity were later tested to determine the Minimum Inhibitory Dilution (MID) for those bacteria. They were also effective on the inhibition of DNase activity. This study was indicated that extracts and essential oils of Black and Red pepper and Thyme can play a significant role in inhibition of Escherichia coli O157: H7 and Staphylococcus aureus.

Identification of morphine accumulation in the rat embryo central nervous system: a c14-morphine administration study.

BACKGROUND: Previous studies have shown that morphine consumption during pregnancy may cause delay or defect of embryo development or abnormal nervous system function in the human and animal models. In the present study, the highest density of morphine accumulation in the central nervous system of rat embryos was evaluated using C14-morphine. METHODS: Female Wistar rats (W 170-200 g) used and were crossed with male rats and coupling time was recorded (Embryonic day 0-E0). Experimental groups received 0.05 mg/ml of C14-morphine in drinking water daily. On the 10(th) and 17(th) days of pregnancy, pregnant rats were anesthetized and the embryos with these uterus and placenta were surgically removed and were fixed in formalin 10% for 4 week. Then the embryos were processed, sectioned in 25 µm and 5 µm thicknesses, fixed on the glasses for further evaluations. The sectioned in 25, the glasses were fixed on the Blanc black and white film for 6 h. Then, the films were appeared and their negatives were prepared. The sectioned in five staining hematoxylin and eosin by light microscope and MOTIC software. RESULTS: Our results indicated that the highest C14-morphine accumulation was observed in the vesicles and the ventricular choroid plexus (CP) of (E17) embryos, whereas, in the (E10) embryos. Highest concentration was observed in the brain vesicles and the ventricular CP. In addition, this study showed the surface area of lateral, 3(rd) and 4(th) ventricular CP in the experimental groups were increased in compared to control groups. CONCLUSIONS: Our results indicated that effects of morphine on reduction of embryos brain development may be due to the highest accumulation of C14-morphine in the CP and brain vesicles.

Cellular events during arthritis-induced hyperalgesia are mediated by interleukin-6 and p38 MAPK and their effects on the expression of spinal mu-opioid receptors.

Activation of mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) enzymes in nociceptive plasticity has been extensively studied. P38 MAPK enzyme, which can be activated by cytokines, acts as a crucial intracellular regulator of environmental changes. The aim of this study was to elucidate the cellular events during arthritis-induced hyperalgesia that are mediated by interleukin-6 and p38 MAPK, and their effects on the expression of spinal mu-opioid receptors (MORs), in different stages of arthritis in male Wistar rats. Complete Freund's adjuvant (CFA)-induced arthritis (AA) was caused by subcutaneous injection of CFA into the rats' hindpaw. Anti-IL-6 antibody and p38 MAPK phosphorylation inhibitor were administered during 21 days of study. Spinal MOR, p38, and phosphorylated-p38 (pp38) proteins expressions were detected by Western blotting. Daily treatment with anti-IL-6 antibody and p38 MAPK phosphorylation inhibitor, SB203580, significantly decreased paw edema in AA group. Daily anti-IL-6 and SB203580 administration caused a significant reduction in hyperalgesia in the first week of the study, but increased hyperalgesia in the next 2 weeks in experimental groups compared to the AA control group. Expression of pp38 MAPK protein significantly decreased on the 3, 7, 14, and 21 days in AA+SB203580 and AA+anti-IL6 groups compared to AA group. Additionally, daily treatment with anti-IL6 antibody and SB203580 in AA group caused significantly decrease in spinal MOR expression compared to AA control group. The results of our study can confirm that activated spinal p38 MAPK enzyme may play an important role in cellular IL-6 signaling pathways in hyperalgesia variation during different stages of AA inflammation. Also, it can be suggested that at least a part of p38 MAPK effects on hyperalgesia is mediated by spinal MOR expression variation.

Evaluating the effects of oral morphine on embryonic development of cerebellum in wistar rats.

In the present research, the effect of morphine consumption during pregnancy on the development of the embryo's spinal cord was studied in Wistar rat. FEMALE WISTAR RATS (WT: 250-300 g) were mated with males. The test group received morphine (0.01 mg/ml) in their drinking water. Pregnant rats were later killed with chloroform on the 12th, 13th and 14th days of pregnancy, and the embryos were taken out surgically. The embryos were fixed in formalin 10% for 2 weeks. Then, the weight of fixed embryos was calculated by a scale. In addition, several animals' sizes including fronto-posterior and lateral length were measured by a caliper. Tissue processing, sectioning and hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) staining were applied for the embryos. The sections were examined for spinal cord development by light microscope and MOTIC software. Significant decrease was observed in the fronto-posterior and lateral length and the weight of the embryos in the test groups. The thickness of the white matter layer decreased on the 12th, 13th and 14th embryonic days. The thickness of the spine's grey layer was also less than the control group, on the same days. Increase in the length of the ependimal duct observed as well. Number of grey substance cells decreased compared to the control group within the same days. Meanwhile, thickness of the germinal layer reduced in comparison to the control group on the mentioned days. In conclusion, morphine consumption during pregnancy causes defects in growth and completion of the spinal cord.

Bidirectional effects of serum TNF alpha level and spinal p38MAPK phosphorylation on hyperalgesia variation during CFA-induced arthritis.

Regarding the role of TNFα in the induction of hyperalgesia, the dual suggested roles of the Pp38 MAPK intracellular pathway in the emergence of symptomatic inflammation, we aimed to investigate the bidirectional effects of serum TNFα level and p38 MAPK phosphorylation on hyperalgesia variation during different stages of adjuvant-induced arthritis. Hyperalgesia and edema were assessed at 0, 3, 7, 14, and 21 days of study after arthritis induction by CFA. Anti-TNFα and Pp38 inhibitor were administered during the 21 days of study. Receptor and intra-cellular enzyme expression were detected by western blotting. Anti-TNFα administration in the AA group decreased paw volume and hyperalgesia until the 14th day of study; on the 21st day, those symptoms increased. Daily administration of anti-TNFα antibody caused significant decrease in spinal mOR protein and Pp38/p38 MAPK enzyme level expression on the 14th and 21st days compared to the AA control group. Our data suggested that phosphorylation of spinal p38 MAPK enzyme played an important role in bidirectional effects of serum TNFα on inflammatory symptoms via spinal mOR expression variation.

The effect of morphine consumption on plasma corticosteron concentration and placenta development in pregnant rats.

BACKGROUND: Previous studies have shown that morphine consumption during pregnancy may delay embryo development or cause abnormal nervous system function. OBJECTIVE: The present study focused on the effect of maternal morphine consumption on development of placenta and blood corticosteron concentration in addictive pregnant mothers. MATERIALS AND METHODS: 24 female rats, 170-200g weight, were used. The experimental groups after pregnancy received an oral dose of 0.05 mg/ml of morphine by tap water while the control group received only tap water. On 10(th) and 14(th) day of pregnancy, rats were anesthetized and placenta removed surgically, 1ml blood was collected from each pregnant mother from retro-orbital sinus, the concentration of blood corticosteron was determined by corticosteron Elisa kit after centrifugation. The fixed tissue was processed, sectioned and stained with hematoxylin and eosin. Placenta was studied microscopically according to the thickness of layers, area of blood cisterns, and the number of cells. RESULTS: Comparing the plasma corticosteron concentration of the treatment and the control groups, not only a severe increase in the treatment group was detected, but also the thickness of maternal and embryonic portions of the placenta at day 10(th) and 14(th) of gestation was different significantly (p≤0.05). Furthermore, an increase in number of cells in maternal and embryonic portion of placenta and a decrease in blood cistern area were demonstrated in both the experimental and the control groups. CONCLUSION: The effects of morphine, including an increase in blood concentration of corticosteron, in dependent pregnant mothers were seen. Development of placenta in the experimental group was delayed.

Effects of oral morphine on the larvae, pupae and imago development in Drosophila melanogaster.

OBJECTIVE: Previous studies, focusing on the effects of abused drugs, have used mice or rats as the main animal models; the present study tries to introduce a simple animal model. For this propose, we investigated the effects of oral morphine consumption by parents on the development of larvae, pupae and imago in Drosophila Melanogaster (D. Melanogaster). MATERIALS AND METHODS: In this experimental study, twenty male and 20 female D. Melanogaster pupae were housed in test tubes with banana (5 pupae /tube).). Male and female groups each were divided into three experimental group and one control group, which were maintained at 25℃. Morphine (0.2, 0.02, 0.002 mg/ml) was added into the test tubes of the experimental groups. The control group maintained at morphine-free test tube. The male and female groups with the same treatment were coupled and then female fertilization, egg deposit, larval, pupae and imago stages were studied macro and microscopically. The SPSS software (version 9.01) was used for statistical evaluations. RESULTS: In the experimental groups, in the larvae stage, both increase and decrease of length and surface area in the pupae stage were observed. The number of larvae pupae, and imago was reduced in the experimental groups. CONCLUSION: The study showed that oral morphine consumption by parents may affect the development of larvae, pupation and imago stages in D. Melanogaster. The results also showed that D. Melanogaster may be a reliable animal model to study on the concerns about abused drugs especially those with opioids.

Achillea santolina reduces serum interleukin-6 level and hyperalgesia during complete Freund's adjuvant-induced inflammation in male Wistar rats.

OBJECTIVE: Immune system is involved in the etiology and pathophysiologic mechanisms of inflammation. Medicinal plants are an important source of substances which are claimed to induce non-specific immunomodulatory effects. In view of this and on account of the interleukin (IL)-6's role in inflammation and pain induction, this study investigated the effects of Achillea santolina extracts on inflammation which was induced by complete Freund's adjuvant (CFA) in male Wistar rats. METHODS: Both methanolic and defatted extracts prepared from aerial parts of the plant were examined. Inflammatory symptoms such as hyperalgesia and paw edema in CFA-injected rats' paw were measured by radiant heat and plethysmometer during different stages of study respectively. Serum IL-6 level was checked by rat standard enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay specific kit. RESULTS: The results indicated dose-related effects of methanolic extract on paw edema, hyperalgesia and serum IL-6 level reduction in rats. Methanolic extract of A. santolina exhibited significant antihyperalgesic and anti-inflammatory effects during pretreatment and short-term treatment at dose of 200 mg/kg and there was no significant difference between 200 and 400 mg/kg doses of this extract. Defatted extract did not show significant effect on CFA-induced inflammation during different stages of treatment (P>0.05). Short-term treatment with methanolic extract at dose of 200 mg/kg was more effective than indomethacin in edema, hyperalgesia and serum IL-6 level reduction (P<0.01, P<0.01 and P<0.05 respectively). CONCLUSION: These results suggest that methanolic extract of A. santolina possesses potent anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory activities during pretreatment and short-term administration.