Immunomic longitudinal profiling of the NeoPembrOv trial identifies drivers of immunoresistance in high-grade ovarian carcinoma.

PD-1/PD-L1 blockade has so far shown limited survival benefit for high-grade ovarian carcinomas. By using paired samples from the NeoPembrOv randomized phase II trial (NCT03275506), for which primary outcomes are published, and by combining RNA-seq and multiplexed immunofluorescence staining, we explore the impact of NeoAdjuvant ChemoTherapy (NACT) ± Pembrolizumab (P) on the tumor environment, and identify parameters that correlated with response to immunotherapy as a pre-planned exploratory analysis. Indeed, i) combination therapy results in a significant increase in intraepithelial CD8+PD-1+ T cells, ii) combining endothelial and monocyte gene signatures with the CD8B/FOXP3 expression ratio is predictive of response to NACT + P with an area under the curve of 0.93 (95% CI 0.85-1.00) and iii) high CD8B/FOXP3 and high CD8B/ENTPD1 ratios are significantly associated with positive response to NACT + P, while KDR and VEGFR2 expression are associated with resistance. These results indicate that targeting regulatory T cells and endothelial cells, especially VEGFR2+ endothelial cells, could overcome immune resistance of ovarian cancers.

First-Line LV5FU2 with or without Aflibercept in Patients with Non-Resectable Metastatic Colorectal Cancer: A Randomized Phase II Trial (PRODIGE 25-FFCD-FOLFA).

Fluropyrimidine monotherapy is an option for some patients with inoperable metastatic colorectal cancer. Unlike bevacizumab, the addition of aflibercept, an antibody acting as an anti-angiogenic agent, has never been evaluated in this context. The aim of the study was to determine whether aflibercept could increase the efficacy of fluoropyrimidine monotherapy without increasing toxicity. This multicenter phase II non-comparative trial evaluated the addition of aflibercept to infusional 5-fluorouracil/folinic acid (LV5FU2 regimen) as first-line treatment in patients unfit to receive doublet cytotoxic chemotherapy. The primary endpoint was 6-month progression-free survival (PFS). The clinical hypotheses expected a PFS rate at 6 months of over 40% (60% expected). A total of 117 patients, with a median age of 81 years, were included: 59 in arm A (LV5FU2-aflibercept) and 58 in arm B (LV5FU2 alone). Six-month PFS was 54.7% in both arms (90% CI 42.5-66.5 in both). Median overall survival was 21.8 months (arm A) and 25.1 months (arm B). Overall toxicity was more common in arm A: grade ≥ 3 toxicity in 82% versus 58.2%. Given the 6-month PFS, the study can be considered positive. However, the toxicity of aflibercept in this population was high, and continuation of the trial into phase III is not envisaged.

Synergistic effect of combining sunitinib with a peptide-based vaccine in cancer treatment after microenvironment remodeling.

Although it has proven difficult to demonstrate the clinical efficacy of therapeutic vaccination as a monotherapy in advanced cancers, its combination with an immunomodulatory treatment to reduce intra-tumor immunosuppression and improve vaccine efficacy is a very promising strategy. In this context, we are studying the combination of a vaccine composed of peptides of the tumor antigen survivin (SVX vaccine) with the anti-angiogenic agent sunitinib in a colorectal carcinoma model. To this end, we have been focusing on administration scheduling and have highlighted a therapeutic synergy between SVX vaccine and sunitinib when the vaccine was administered at the end of anti-angiogenic treatment. In this setting, a prolonged control of tumor growth associated with an important percentage of complete tumor regression was observed. Studying the remodeling induced by each therapy on the immunological and angiogenic tumor microenvironment over time we observed, during sunitinib treatment, a transient increase in polymorphonuclear myeloid-derived suppressor cells (PMN-MDSCs) and a decrease in NK cells in the tumor microenvironment. In contrast, after sunitinib treatment was stopped, a decrease in PMN-MDSC populations has been observed in the tumor, associated with an increase in NK cells, pericyte coverage of tumor vessels and CD8+ T cell population and functionality. In conclusion, sunitinib treatment results in the promotion of an immune-favorable tumor microenvironment that can guide the optimal sequence of vaccine and anti-angiogenic combination to reinforce their synergy.

Targeting HGF/c-Met Axis Decreases Circulating Regulatory T Cells Accumulation in Gastric Cancer Patients.

Elucidating mechanisms involved in tumor-induced immunosuppression is of great interest since it could help to improve cancer immunotherapy efficacy. Here we show that Hepatocyte Growth Factor (HGF), a pro-tumoral and proangiogenic factor, and its receptor c-Met are involved in regulatory T cells (Treg) accumulation in the peripheral blood of gastric cancer (GC) patients. We observed that c-Met is expressed on circulating monocytes from GC patients. The elevated expression on monocytes is associated with clinical parameters linked to an aggressive disease phenotype and correlates with a worse prognosis. Monocyte-derived dendritic cells from GC patients differentiated in the presence of HGF adopt a regulatory phenotype with a lower expression of co-stimulatory molecules, impaired maturation capacities, and an increased ability to produce interleukin-10 and to induce Treg differentiation in vitro. In the MEGA-ACCORD20-PRODIGE17 trial, GC patients received an anti-HGF antibody treatment (rilotumumab), which had been described to have an anti-angiogenic activity by decreasing proliferation of endothelial cells and tube formation. Rilotumumab decreased circulating Treg in GC patients. Thus, we identified that HGF indirectly triggers Treg accumulation via c-Met-expressing monocytes in the peripheral blood of GC patients. Our study provides arguments for potential alternative use of HGF/c-Met targeted therapies based on their immunomodulatory properties which could lead to the development of new therapeutic associations in cancer patients, for example with immune checkpoint inhibitors.

Direct and Indirect Modulation of T Cells by VEGF-A Counteracted by Anti-Angiogenic Treatment.

Vascular endothelial growth factor A is known to play a central role in tumor angiogenesis. Several studies showed that VEGF-A is also an immunosuppressive factor. In tumor-bearing hosts, VEGF-A can modulate immune cells (DC, MDSC, TAM) to induce the accumulation of regulatory T-cells while simultaneously inhibiting T-cell functions. Furthermore, VEGFR-2 expression on activated T-cells and FoxP3high regulatory T-cells also allow a direct effect of VEGF-A. Anti-angiogenic agents targeting VEGF-A/VEGFR contribute to limit tumor-induced immunosuppression. Based on interesting preclinical studies, many clinical trials have been conducted to investigate the efficacy of anti-VEGF-A/VEGFR treatments combined with immune checkpoint blockade leading to the approvement of these associations in different tumor locations. In this review, we focus on the impact of VEGF-A on immune cells especially regulatory and effector T-cells and different therapeutic strategies to restore an antitumor immunity.

Decrease of Pro-Angiogenic Monocytes Predicts Clinical Response to Anti-Angiogenic Treatment in Patients with Metastatic Renal Cell Carcinoma.

The modulation of subpopulations of pro-angiogenic monocytes (VEGFR-1+CD14 and Tie2+CD14) was analyzed in an ancillary study from the prospective PazopanIb versus Sunitinib patient preferenCE Study (PISCES) (NCT01064310), where metastatic renal cell carcinoma (mRCC) patients were treated with two anti-angiogenic drugs, either sunitinib or pazopanib. Blood samples from 86 patients were collected prospectively at baseline (T1), and at 10 weeks (T2) and 20 weeks (T3) after starting anti-angiogenic therapy. Various subpopulations of myeloid cells (monocytes, VEGFR-1+CD14 and Tie2+CD14 cells) decreased during treatment. When patients were divided into two subgroups with a decrease (defined as a >20% reduction from baseline value) (group 1) or not (group 2) at T3 for VEGFR-1+CD14 cells, group 1 patients presented a median PFS and OS of 24 months and 37 months, respectively, compared with a median PFS of 9 months (p = 0.032) and a median OS of 16 months (p = 0.033) in group 2 patients. The reduction in Tie2+CD14 at T3 predicted a benefit in OS at 18 months after therapy (p = 0.04). In conclusion, in this prospective clinical trial, a significant decrease in subpopulations of pro-angiogenic monocytes was associated with clinical response to anti-angiogenic drugs in patients with mRCC.

[Current advances in immunotherapy in ovarian cancer]. / Les avancées actuelles de l'immunothérapie dans le cancer de l'ovaire.

Ovarian cancers express highly immunogenic tissue-specific antigens. The resulting immune infiltration is a major prognostic factor. There is therefore a strong biological rationale for the development of immunotherapy in ovarian cancer. However, based on Phase I and II clinical trials data, the efficacy of anti-PD-1 and anti-PD-L1 immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICPIs) remains limited in monotherapy in heavily pre-treated patients. Currently, the identification of predictive biomarkers of response and resistance is one of the major areas of research. Identifying effective combination of anti-PD-1 or anti-PD-L1 with other anticancer agents is another clinical need. Several combinations were evaluated. The association of ICPIs with chemotherapy (anthracyclines or carboplatin+paclitaxel) is disappointing (JAVELIN studies). The association with PARP inhibitors, anti-angiogenic agents and CTLA-4 inhibitors seems promising. Other immune therapies such as cell therapies (adoptive transfer of intra-tumor lymphocytes, CAR T cells or vaccines from dendritic cells) could be the future of immunotherapy in ovarian cancer but only early phase studies clinical data is available at this time.

Infiltrating and peripheral immune cell analysis in advanced gastric cancer according to the Lauren classification and its prognostic significance.

BACKGROUND: The correlation between immune cells and the Lauren classification subtypes and their prognostic impact in advanced gastric cancer (AGC) are unknown. METHODS: Circulating natural killer (NK) cells, CD4+ and CD8+ T cells, regulatory T cells (Tregs) and myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) were quantified in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) from 67 patients with untreated AGC enrolled in the PRODIGE 17-ACCORD 20 trial. CD56+ cells (NK), CD8+, and FoxP3+ (Treg) tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs) were assessed in tumor samples. RESULTS: Circulating NK and Treg proportions were significantly lower in patients with diffuse/mixed-type AGC (n = 27) than those with intestinal type (n = 40; median 6.3% vs 11.5%; p = 0.02 and median 3.3% vs 5.2%; p = 0.03, respectively). Proportions of circulating MDSC, CD4+ and CD8+ T cells were not associated with one pathological type. Among tumor-infiltrating cells, CD8+ T cells, but not NK or FoxP3+ cells, were significantly lower in diffuse/mixed-type AGC (median 21 vs 59 cells/field; p = 0.009). Patients with high circulating NK cell counts (> 17%) had a better overall survival than those with < 17% (HR 0.40; 95% CI [0.15-1.06]; p = 0.04). Patients with high CD8+ TIL counts (> 31 cells/field) had significantly longer overall survival (HR 0.44; 95% CI [0.21-0.92]; p = 0.02). The prognostic value of CD8+ TILs was maintained after adjustment for confounding factors, including the Lauren classification (HR = 0.42; 95% CI [0.18-0.96]; p = 0.039). CONCLUSION: Diffuse/mixed-type AGC has lower rates of CD8+ TILs and circulating NK cells and Tregs than the intestinal type. This "cold tumor" phenotype may be associated with a worse outcome.

Therapeutic Cancer Vaccine and Combinations With Antiangiogenic Therapies and Immune Checkpoint Blockade.

Considering the high importance of immune surveillance and immune escape in the evolution of cancer, the development of immunotherapeutic strategies has become a major field of research in recent decades. The considerable therapeutic breakthrough observed when targeting inhibitory immune checkpoint molecules has highlighted the need to find approaches enabling the induction and proper activation of an immune response against cancer. In this context, therapeutic vaccination, which can induce a specific immune response against tumor antigens, is an important approach to consider. However, this strategy has its advantages and limits. Considering its low clinical efficacy, approaches combining therapeutic cancer vaccine strategies with other immunotherapies or targeted therapies have been emphasized. This review will list different cancer vaccines, with an emphasis on their targets. We highlight the results and limits of vaccine strategies and then describe strategies that combine therapeutic vaccines and antiangiogenic therapies or immune checkpoint blockade. Antiangiogenic therapies and immune checkpoint blockade are of proven clinical efficacy for some indications, but are limited by toxicity and the development of resistance. Their combination with therapeutic vaccines could be a way to improve therapeutic outcome by specifically stimulating the immune system and considering a global approach to tumor microenvironment remodeling.

High Therapeutic Efficacy of a New Survivin LSP-Cancer Vaccine Containing CD4+ and CD8+ T-Cell Epitopes.

The efficacy of an antitumoral vaccine relies both on the choice of the antigen targeted and on its design. The tumor antigen survivin is an attractive target to develop therapeutic cancer vaccines because of its restricted over-expression and vital functions in most human tumors. Accordingly, several clinical trials targeting survivin in various cancer indications have been conducted. Most of them relied on short peptide-based vaccines and showed promising, but limited clinical results. In this study, we investigated the immunogenicity and therapeutic efficacy of a new long synthetic peptide (LSP)-based cancer vaccine targeting the tumor antigen survivin (SVX). This SVX vaccine is composed of three long synthetic peptides containing several CD4+ and CD8+ T-cell epitopes, which bind to various HLA class II and class I molecules. Studies in healthy individuals showed CD4+ and CD8+ T-cell immunogenicity of SVX peptides in human, irrespective of the individual's HLA types. Importantly, high frequencies of spontaneous T-cell precursors specific to SVX peptides were also detected in the blood of various cancer patients, demonstrating the absence of tolerance against these peptides. We then demonstrated SVX vaccine's high therapeutic efficacy against four different established murine tumor models, associated with its capacity to generate both specific cytotoxic CD8+ and multifunctional Th1 CD4+ T-cell responses. When tumors were eradicated, generated memory T-cell responses protected against rechallenge allowing long-term protection against relapses. Treatment with SVX vaccine was also found to reshape the tumor microenvironment by increasing the tumor infiltration of both CD4+ and CD8+ T cells but not Treg cells therefore tipping the balance toward a highly efficient immune response. These results highlight that this LSP-based SVX vaccine appears as a promising cancer vaccine and warrants its further clinical development.

Induction of resident memory T cells enhances the efficacy of cancer vaccine.

Tissue-resident memory T cells (Trm) represent a new subset of long-lived memory T cells that remain in tissue and do not recirculate. Although they are considered as early immune effectors in infectious diseases, their role in cancer immunosurveillance remains unknown. In a preclinical model of head and neck cancer, we show that intranasal vaccination with a mucosal vector, the B subunit of Shiga toxin, induces local Trm and inhibits tumour growth. As Trm do not recirculate, we demonstrate their crucial role in the efficacy of cancer vaccine with parabiosis experiments. Blockade of TFGß decreases the induction of Trm after mucosal vaccine immunization, resulting in the lower efficacy of cancer vaccine. In order to extrapolate this role of Trm in humans, we show that the number of Trm correlates with a better overall survival in lung cancer in multivariate analysis. The induction of Trm may represent a new surrogate biomarker for the efficacy of cancer vaccine. This study also argues for the development of vaccine strategies designed to elicit them.

Dynamic evaluation of circulating tumour cells in patients with advanced gastric and oesogastric junction adenocarcinoma: Prognostic value and early assessment of therapeutic effects.

BACKGROUND: The identification of dynamic biomarkers in advanced gastric and oesogastric junction adenocarcinoma (GOA) could help to tailor strategies for each patient. Enumeration of circulating tumour cells (CTCs) is approved by the US Food and Drug Administration in breast, colon and prostate cancer but is not in advanced GOA. Our study aims to establish the optimal threshold and the clinical significance of CTC count in advanced GOA before and during treatment. METHODS: One hundred six patients with untreated advanced GOA were included in the ancillary study of the PRODIGE 17-ACCORD 20 trial. CTCs were detected in the peripheral blood using the CellSearch system on day 0 (D0) and day 28 (D28). The prognostic value of CTCs at D0 and D28 was analysed by testing several thresholds. RESULTS: At baseline, median CTC count was 1 (range, 0-415). While CTCs ≥1, 2 or 3 at D0 were all significantly associated with worse overall survival (OS) and progression-free survival (PFS), CTCs ≥2 were the optimal threshold, on D0 or D28. CTCs ≥2 at D28 were also predictive of disease control. Taking into account both D0 and D28 CTC count defined 3 groups (low/low, high/low and low-high/high) with significantly different PFS (p = 0.0002) and OS (p = 0.003). CONCLUSION: Quantification of CTCs at baseline and during treatment may be a useful prognostic tool in advanced GOA, as it is associated with worse PFS and OS. A threshold ≥2 CTCs seems to have the best discriminant value. Change in CTC count between baseline and D28 could help to tailor treatment to each individual patient.

[Immune system and tumors]. / Système immunitaire et tumeurs.

Despite having been much debated, it is now well established that the immune system plays an essential role in the fight against cancer. In this article, we will highlight the implication of the immune system in the control of tumor growth and describe the major components of the immune system involved in the antitumoral immune response. The immune system, while exerting pressure on tumor cells, also will play a pro-tumoral role by sculpting the immunogenicity of tumors cells as they develop. Finally, we will illustrate the numerous mechanisms of immune suppression that take place within the tumoral microenvironment which allow tumor cells to escape control from the immune system. The increasingly precise knowledge of the brakes to an effective antitumor immune response allows the development of immunotherapy strategies more and more innovating and promising of hope.

IL-15 Trans-Signaling with the Superagonist RLI Promotes Effector/Memory CD8+ T Cell Responses and Enhances Antitumor Activity of PD-1 Antagonists.

Tumors with the help of the surrounding environment facilitate the immune suppression in patients, and immunotherapy can counteract this inhibition. Among immunotherapeutic strategies, the immunostimulatory cytokine IL-15 could represent a serious candidate for the reactivation of antitumor immunity. However, exogenous IL-15 may have a limited impact on patients with cancer due to its dependency on IL-15Rα frequently downregulated in cancer patients. In this work, we studied the antitumor activity of the IL-15 superagonist receptor-linker-IL-15 (RLI), designed to bypass the need of endogenous IL-15Rα. RLI consists of human IL-15 covalently linked to the human IL-15Rα sushi(+) domain. In a mouse model of colorectal carcinoma, RLI as a stand-alone treatment could limit tumor outgrowth only when initiated at an early time of tumor development. At a later time, RLI was not effective, coinciding with the strong accumulation of terminally exhausted programmed cell death-1 (PD-1)(high) T cell Ig mucin-3(+) CD8(+) T cells, suggesting that RLI was not able to reactivate terminally exhausted CD8(+) T cells. Combination with PD-1 blocking Ab showed synergistic activity with RLI, but not with IL-15. RLI could induce a greater accumulation of memory CD8(+) T cells and a stronger effector function in comparison with IL-15. Ex vivo stimulation of tumor-infiltrated lymphocytes from 16 patients with renal cell carcinoma demonstrated 56% of a strong tumor-infiltrated lymphocyte reactivation with the combination anti-PD-1/RLI compared with 43 and 6% with RLI or anti-PD-1, respectively. Altogether, this work provides evidence that the sushi-IL-15Rα/IL-15 fusion protein RLI enhances antitumor activity of anti-PD-1 treatment and is a promising approach to stimulate host immunity.

VEGF-A modulates expression of inhibitory checkpoints on CD8+ T cells in tumors.

Immune escape is a prerequisite for tumor development. To avoid the immune system, tumors develop different mechanisms, including T cell exhaustion, which is characterized by expression of immune inhibitory receptors, such as PD-1, CTLA-4, Tim-3, and a progressive loss of function. The recent development of therapies targeting PD-1 and CTLA-4 have raised great interest since they induced long-lasting objective responses in patients suffering from advanced metastatic tumors. However, the regulation of PD-1 expression, and thereby of exhaustion, is unclear. VEGF-A, a proangiogenic molecule produced by the tumors, plays a key role in the development of an immunosuppressive microenvironment. We report in the present work that VEGF-A produced in the tumor microenvironment enhances expression of PD-1 and other inhibitory checkpoints involved in CD8(+) T cell exhaustion, which could be reverted by anti-angiogenic agents targeting VEGF-A-VEGFR. In view of these results, association of anti-angiogenic molecules with immunomodulators of inhibitory checkpoints may be of particular interest in VEGF-A-producing tumors.

Colorectal cancer and immunity: what we know and perspectives.

Strong evidence supports the concept of immunosurveillance and immunoediting in colorectal cancer. In particular, the density of T CD8⁺ and CD45⁺ lymphocyte infiltration was recently shown to have a better prognostic value than the classic tumor node metastasis classification factor. Other immune subsets, as macrophages, natural killer cells or unconventionnal lymphocytes, seem to play an important role. Induction of regulatory T cells (Tregs) or immunosuppressive molecules such as PD-1 or CTLA-4 and downregulation of antigen-presenting molecules are major escape mechanisms to antitumor immune response. The development of these mechanisms is a major obstacle to the establishment of an effective immune response, but also to the use of immunotherapy. Although immunotherapy is not yet routinely used in colorectal cancer, we now know that most treatments used (chemotherapy and biotherapy) have immunomodulatory effects, such as induction of immunogenic cell death by chemotherapy, inhibition of immunosuppression by antiangiogenic agents, and antibody-dependent cytotoxicity induced by cetuximab. Finally, many immunotherapy strategies are being developed and tested in phase I to III clinical trials. The most promising strategies are boosting the immune system with cytokines, inhibition of immunoregulatory checkpoints, vaccination with vectorized antigens, and adoptive cell therapy. Comprehension of antitumor immune response and combination of the different approaches of immunotherapy may allow the use of effective immunotherapy for treatment of colorectal cancer in the near future.

Control of the adaptive immune response by tumor vasculature.

THE ENDOTHELIUM IS NOWADAYS DESCRIBED AS AN ENTIRE ORGAN THAT REGULATES VARIOUS PROCESSES: vascular tone, coagulation, inflammation, and immune cell trafficking, depending on the vascular site and its specific microenvironment as well as on endothelial cell-intrinsic mechanisms like epigenetic changes. In this review, we will focus on the control of the adaptive immune response by the tumor vasculature. In physiological conditions, the endothelium acts as a barrier regulating cell trafficking by specific expression of adhesion molecules enabling adhesion of immune cells on the vessel, and subsequent extravasation. This process is also dependent on chemokine and integrin expression, and on the type of junctions defining the permeability of the endothelium. Endothelial cells can also regulate immune cell activation. In fact, the endothelial layer can constitute immunological synapses due to its close interactions with immune cells, and the delivery of co-stimulatory or co-inhibitory signals. In tumor conditions, the vasculature is characterized by an abnormal vessel structure and permeability, and by a specific phenotype of endothelial cells. All these abnormalities lead to a modulation of intra-tumoral immune responses and contribute to the development of intra-tumoral immunosuppression, which is a major mechanism for promoting the development, progression, and treatment resistance of tumors. The in-depth analysis of these various abnormalities will help defining novel targets for the development of anti-tumoral treatments. Furthermore, eventual changes of the endothelial cell phenotype identified by plasma biomarkers could secondarily be selected to monitor treatment efficacy.

Control of the immune response by pro-angiogenic factors.

The progressive conversion of normal cells into cancer cells is characterized by the acquisition of eight hallmarks. Among these criteria, the capability of the cancer cell to avoid the immune destruction has been noted. Thus, tumors develop mechanisms to become invisible to the immune system, such as the induction of immunosuppressive cells, which are able to inhibit the development of an efficient immune response. Molecules produced in the tumor microenvironment are involved in the occurrence of an immunosuppressive microenvironment. Recently, it has been shown that vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGF-A) exhibits immunosuppressive properties in addition to its pro-angiogenic activities. VEGF-A can induce the accumulation of immature dendritic cells, myeloid-derived suppressor cells, regulatory T cells, and inhibit the migration of T lymphocytes to the tumor. Other pro-angiogenic factors such as placental growth factor (PlGF) could also participate in tumor-induced immunosuppression, but only few works have been performed on this point. Here, we review the impact of pro-angiogenic factors (especially VEGF-A) on immune cells. Anti-angiogenic molecules, which target VEGF-A/VEGFR axis, have been developed in the last decades and are commonly used to treat cancer patients. These drugs have anti-angiogenic properties but can also counteract the tumor-induced immunosuppression. Based on these immunomodulatory properties, anti-angiogenic molecules could be efficiently associated with immunotherapeutic strategies in preclinical models. These combinations are currently under investigation in cancer patients.

Immunity and squamous cell carcinoma of the anus: epidemiological, clinical and therapeutic aspects.

Squamous cell carcinoma of the anus (SCCA) is a rare disease, but its incidence has been increasing dramatically since the 1970s. Men who have sex with men (MSM) and infection with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) are the two main risk factors. Risk of developing SCCA is increased more than 100-fold in HIV-seropositive MSM. We review here how immunodeficiency could promote SCCA and how restoration of immunity since the advent of combined antiretroviral therapy can influence the natural history and incidence of SCCA. We also review the prognostic and therapeutic implications of immunosuppression in these patients. Finally, we show how, with anti-HPV vaccines, immunity is a target in the prevention of SCCA and could in the future be used in its treatment.