Bacterial Communities Associated with Houseflies (Musca domestica L.) Inhabiting Hospices in South Africa.

Houseflies are alleged reservoirs as well as vectors of human and animal pathogens, including bacteria, because they frequently have contact with animal excreta and decaying organic substances. The rapid adaptation process of ingested microbes in the insect gut may involve gene transfer, including antibiotic resistance determinants among different bacterial strains. Six hundred and fifty-seven (n = 657) houseflies were collected from hospices and were identified morphologically and genetically using the 16S rRNA, CO1, and ITS2 barcoding genes. This study also characterized the bacterial communities harboured by the captured houseflies using 16S rRNA metabarcoding on the next-generation sequencing (NGS) platform and further sought to detect antibiotic resistance traits by using gene-specific PCR assays. Generated sequences for the targeted gene fragments matched with Musca domestica and all the sequences were deposited to the GenBank database. The 16S rRNA metabarcoding analysis revealed that the most abundant phyla detected with variable abundance observed among all the houseflies were Proteobacteria, followed by Firmicutes, and Bacteroidetes. Furthermore, the NGS data revealed the presence of multiple bacterial genera, including Providencia, Enterobacter, Dysgonomonas, Escherichia-Shigella, Klebsiella, Pseudomonas, and Streptococcus, which are known to harbour potentially pathogenic species of animals and humans. Antibiotic resistance genes detected from the housefly DNA in this study included ermB, tetA, blaSHV, and blaTEM. Moreover, these genes are associated with resistance to erythromycin, tetracycline, and beta-lactams antibiotics, respectively. The presence of bacterial pathogens and the detection of antibiotic resistance genes from the houseflies collected from the hospices indicates the possible health risk to patients in hospices and the surrounding community. Therefore, it is imperative to keep high standards of hygiene, food preparation, safety, and control of houseflies in hospices.

Molecular detection of Fasciola, Schistosoma and Paramphistomum species from freshwater snails occurring in Gauteng and Free State provinces, South Africa.

Trematodiases are diseases caused by snail-borne trematode parasites that infect both animals and humans. Fascioliasis, schistosomiasis and paramphistomosis are some of these diseases and they affect millions of livestock, leading to significant economic losses. The aim of the study was to document freshwater snails occurring in selected study sites in the Free State and Gauteng provinces as well as identify and detect larval trematodes that they harbour. Samples were collected from a total of five study sites within two provinces of South Africa. Morphological features were used to identify snail species and were further confirmed genetically by polymerase chain reaction (PCR), sequencing and phylogenetic analysis. The larval trematodes were also detected by PCR, PCR-Restriction Length Fragment Polymorphism (PCR-RLFP), sequencing and phylogenetic analysis. A total of 887 freshwater snails were collected from Free State (n = 343) and Gauteng (n = 544). Five different genera of snails as well as species in the Succineidae family were documented. The snails in descending order of abundance were identified as: Physa (P.) spp. (51%), Succineidae spp. (20%), Galba (G.) truncatula (12%), Pseudosuccinea (Ps.) columella (10%), Planorbella (Pl.) duryi (6%) and Bulinus (B.) truncatus (1%). Approximately 272 DNA pools were created for genetic identification of snails and detection of trematode parasites. Schistosoma species were not detected from any of the snail species. A total prevalence of 46% was obtained for Fasciola hepatica in the identified snail species across all study sites. Overall, the highest prevalence of F. hepatica was obtained in Physa species (24%), whilst the lowest was observed in B. truncatus snails (1%). Forty three percent (43%) of the snail samples were PCR positive for Paramphistomum DNA. This is the first report of P. mexicana in South Africa. Fasciola hepatica was confirmed from all obtained snail species per study site. This is the first reported detection of F. hepatica in Pl. duryi and P. mexicana snails as well as the first confirmation of natural infection from P. acuta in South Africa.

First report of gastrointestinal nematodes and coccidia parasites from free-range chickens in Mafeteng district, Lesotho.

Free-range chickens are an integral part of poultry production in many developing countries. In the Mountain Kingdom of Lesotho, the majority of the population own free-range chickens, which serve a variety of purposes including being a source of meat, eggs and use for cultural rituals amongst others. However, there is lack of scientific studies on occurrence of parasitic infections on free-range chickens in Lesotho. The aim of this study was to document common gastrointestinal parasites infecting free-range chickens in four villages of Mafeteng District in Lesotho. A total number of 462 pooled faecal samples were collected from various households in HaKubutu (n = 114), HaMatjeka (n = 120), HaMpalipali (n = 120) and Thabang Villages (n = 108) which were subjected to microscopic examination using McMaster technique. The prevalence of gastrointestinal parasite infection was as follows: Eimeria tenella (12.8%), Ascaridia galli (10.4%) and Heterakis gallinarum (5%). The prevalence for H. gallinarum and Ascaridia galli were comparatively higher during the hot-wet season (7.1% and 2.8% respectively) than the cold-dry season (3.2% and 1.9% respectively) and varied significantly (P < 0.05). For E. tenella, the oocysts per gram were slightly higher in the cold-dry season than the hot-wet season. Polymerase chain reaction only amplified DNA from six (29%) adult A. galli worms of which two amplicons were successfully sequenced. The obtained cytochrome C oxidase subunit 1 partial gene sequences displayed 98-100% identity with South African A. galli isolates. This is the first scientific study on prevalence and molecular characterization of nematodes and coccidia species infecting free-range village chickens in Lesotho. The findings can be used to review management of gastrointestinal nematodes and protozoal parasites of free-range chickens in Lesotho.

Ticks of domestic animals in Lesotho: Morphological and molecular characterization.

A total of 3311 tick specimens were randomly collected from domestic animals including cattle, sheep, goats, horses, donkeys, and dogs from Lesotho districts namely, Berea, Butha-Buthe, Leribe, Mafeteng, Maseru, Mohale's Hoek, Mokhotlong, Qacha's Nek, Quthing and Thaba Tseka. Tick species were identified morphologically and verified by amplification and sequencing of the CO1 and 18S rRNA genes. Nine species were identified under different genera namely, Haemaphysalis elliptica 0.1% (n = 2), Hyalomma rufipes 2.6% (n = 87), Hy. truncatum 1.2% (n = 41), Otobius megnini 13.6% (n = 451), Rhipicephalus appendiculatus 0.1% (n = 3), Rhipicephalus decoloratus 9.3% (n = 308), Rhipicephalus evertsi evertsi 65.1% (n = 2156), Rhipicephalus glabroscutatum 1.3% (n = 43) and Rhipicephalus microplus 6.6% (n = 220). There was a significant difference at p = 6.2E-06 (ꭓ2 = 1.923, df = 7) in the distribution of tick species and their abundance p = 0.04 (ꭓ2 = 1.923, df = 7) from each population. The CO1 and 18S rRNA sequences matched the morphological determinations on the NCBI database and clustered with relevant species on the phylogenetic tree. Genetic analysis of CO1 and 18S rRNA provided very strong support for monophyly of the Rhipicephalinae and Ornithodorinae complexes. Both CO1 and 18S rRNA are useful genetic markers for the specific and generic characterization of tick species in Lesotho and elsewhere. This is the first scientific publication of tick species occurring in Lesotho.

Molecular Detection of Integrons, Colistin and ß-lactamase Resistant Genes in Salmonella enterica Serovars Enteritidis and Typhimurium Isolated from Chickens and Rats Inhabiting Poultry Farms.

The rapid growth of multidrug-resistant Salmonella is a global public health concern. The aim of this study was to detect integrons, colistin and ß-lactamase resistance genes in Salmonella enteritidis and typhimurium. A total of 63 isolates of S. enteritidis (n = 18) and S. typhimurium (n = 45) from fecal samples of layers and rats at chicken farms were screened for antibiotic resistant genes. Conventional PCR was performed for the detection of integrons (classes 1, 2, and 3), colistin (mcr-1-5) and ß-lactamase (blaCTX-M, blaCTX-M-1, blaCTX-M-2, blaCTX-M-9, blaCTX-M-15, blaTEM, blaSHV, and blaOXA) resistant genes. Of these isolates, 77% and 27% of S. typhimurium and S. enteritidis harboured the mcr-4 encoded gene for colistin, respectively. The prevalence of class 1 integrons for S. typhimurium and S. enteritidis was 100% for each serovar, while for class 2 integrons of S. typhimurium and S. enteritidis it was 49% and 33% respectively, while class 3 integron genes was not detected. Our study also detected high levels of ß-lactamase encoding genes (bla gene), namely blaCTX-M, blaCTX-M-1, blaCTX-M-9 and blaTEM from both S. typhimurium and S. enteritidis. This, to our knowledge, is the first report of mcr-4 resistance gene detection in Salmonella serovars in South Africa. This study also highlights the importance of controlling rats at poultry farms in order to reduce the risk of transmission of antibiotic resistance to chickens and eventually to humans.

Bacterial pathogens identified from houseflies in different human and animal settings: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

Housefly (Musca domestica) is an excellent candidate for the distribution of susceptible and resistant bacterial strains that potentially threaten public health. To date, there is a paucity of information on the global distribution of pathogenic bacteria of medical and veterinary importance from diverse environmental settings. Therefore, this study was undertaken to conduct a systemic review and meta-analysis to estimate occurrence of various bacterial species of medical and veterinary importance harboured by houseflies around the world. Published articles from 1980 to 2020 were retrieved from electronic databases and assessed for eligibility according to Preferred Reporting Items for Systemic Reviews and Meta-Analysis guidelines. Seventy-eight studies were included in the review with only 44 studies being eligible for meta-analysis. Results indicated that eligible studies used in this review were from four continents, i.e., Asia (47.4%) America (23.1%), Africa (20.5%) and Europe (8.9%). The majority of the studies (56.4%) used the culture method for the identification of bacterial pathogens, while 30.7% used both culture and PCR techniques. For meta-analysis, we focused on five pathogenic bacterial species including Escherichia coli, Enterococcus faecium, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus. High heterogeneity was found among studies investigating different pathogens including E. coli (Q = 10,739.55; I2  = 99.60; Q-p 0.0001), E. faecium (Q = 317.61; I2  = 86.46; Q-p < 0.0001), K. pneumonia (Q = 1,576.61; I2  = 97.27; Q-p < 0.0001), S. aureus (Q = 2,439.12; I2  = 98.24; Q-p < 0.0001) and P. aeruginosa (Q = 1,283.0; I2  = 96.65; Q-p < 0.0001). Furthermore, it was observed that houseflies carried a considerable number of susceptible and antibiotic-resistant bacterial strains that pose considerable threats to public health. Findings from this study have provided more insight on the vectoral potential of houseflies in the transmission of significant bacterial pathogens from different regions across the world. Further investigation is required to quantify the bacterial contamination and dissemination by houseflies.

Molecular Detection of Coxiella burnetii, Rickettsia africae and Anaplasma Species in Ticks from Domestic Animals in Lesotho.

Tick-borne diseases (TBDs) hamper the growth of the livestock sector and impose major constraints for the health and management of domestic animals in the tropic and subtropical regions globally. Currently, there is no scientific report on the presence of zoonotic pathogens transmitted by tick species in Lesotho. This study aimed to identify zoonotic tick-borne pathogens of economic importance from ticks infesting domestic animals in Lesotho using molecular techniques. A total of 322 tick DNA pools were subjected to PCR screening for the presence of zoonotic pathogens and sequenced. The overall prevalence of Anaplasma spp. was 35% (113/322), with a 100% infection rate in Rhipicephalus microplus, followed by R. evertsi evertsi (92%), Hyalomma rufipes and Otobius megnini sharing 50% and the lowest infection rate was observed in R. decoloratus with 40%. The prevalence of Coxiella burnetii, a gram-negative pleomorphic etiological agent of Query fever (Q fever), was 1% (2/322) for all screened samples, with 20% of R. decoloratus and 1% of R. e. evertsi infected. Rickettsia africae was detected from Hyalomma rufipes with a 70% prevalence. This study provides a baseline knowledge of tick-borne pathogens of medical and veterinary importance in Lesotho and raises awareness of the prevalence of such diseases within the tourism sector as they are mostly affected.

Application of culture, PCR, and PacBio sequencing for determination of microbial composition of milk from subclinical mastitis dairy cows of smallholder farms.

Mastitis is a cow disease usually signalized by irritation, swelling, and soreness of the udder. It is characterized by physical, chemical, and biological changes in the udder and milk. The aim of this study was to detect and characterize pathogens causing subclinical mastitis (SCM) from the milk of dairy cows of small-scale farmers through culture and molecular techniques. Milk was collected from 32 cows belonging to 8 small-scale farmers around Harrismith District, South Africa. The results showed that screening of SCM by California mastitis test and somatic cell counts (SCC) was 21.87 and 25%, respectively. Culture methods revealed the presence of Staphylococcus aureus at 93% followed by Streptococci spp. and Escherichia coli at 36.4 and 13.3%, respectively. The PCR could only detect E. coli, while single-molecule real-time sequencing showed a total of 2 phyla, 5 families, 7 genera, and 131 species. Clostridiaceae was the most abundant family, while Romboutsia was the most abundant genus followed by Turicibacter spp. The present study has documented the occurrence of SCM causing pathogens in milk collected from cows of small-scale farmers in Harrismith, indicating that SCM may be present at higher levels than expected.

Anthelmintic resistance and prevalence of gastrointestinal nematodes infecting sheep in Limpopo Province, South Africa.

BACKGROUND AND AIM: Previous studies recorded the prevalence of gastrointestinal nematodes (GIN) in Limpopo Province. However, the studies did not address the seasonal patterns of infection and did not cover all districts of Limpopo Province, namely; Capricorn, Sekhukhune, Waterberg, Mopani, and Vhembe. It is, therefore, important to provide up to date information on the prevalence and seasonal occurrence data of GIN in all districts of Limpopo province. The present study was conducted to determine the occurrence of anthelmintic resistance (AR) and document the prevalence of GIN infecting sheep in five districts of Limpopo Province, South Africa. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Forty animals in each district were used for fecal egg count reduction test (FECRT) to determine AR against ivermectin (0.2 mg/kg), levamisole (LEV) (5 mg/kg), and albendazole (7.5 mg/kg). Egg hatch test (EHT) was used to determine AR against thiabendazole (TBZ) and micro-agar larval development test (MALDT) was used for both TBZ and LEV. Naturally, infected sheep (n=780) were sampled for prevalence across five districts of Limpopo. FAMACHA© eye-color score estimations were also performed for each study animal. RESULTS: FECRT showed occurrence of AR in most of the districts and a few with suspected resistance. EHT results showed AR development against TBZ for all districts, while the MALDT showed no AR against LEV in all districts, but detected AR against TBZ in Sekhukhune, Capricorn, and Waterberg. Haemonchus contortus was the most resistant species. A high nematode prevalence (88-100%) and 1210-1861 eggs per gram (EPG) was observed in all districts during the hot wet season, decreasing to 75-80% (453-1202 EPG) during the cold dry season. The sheep revealed a FAMACHA© mean score of 3, indicating mild anemia during the hot wet season except for Vhembe district that revealed a FAMACHA© mean score of 4 during the hot wet season, indicating anemia. CONCLUSION: AR recorded in Limpopo Province may be due to under-dosing caused by lack of weighing equipment and high treatment frequencies due to lack of proper training on anthelmintic use. The detection of AR in Limpopo is an important finding because it will help in outlining effective management systems against GIN.

Isolation and antibiotic sensitivity of Campylobacter species from fecal samples of broiler chickens in North West Province, South Africa.

BACKGROUND AND AIM: Infections with Campylobacter species have gained recognition as the most frequent cause of foodborne gastroenteritis globally. Their significance in South Africa is still an area of study interest. This study was, therefore, carried out to determine the occurrence of Campylobacter species in chickens from North West Province of South Africa as well as their antibiotic sensitivity status. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A total of 2400 chicken fecal samples were collected and pooled to a total of 480 samples from five registered active poultry abattoirs in the Ngaka Modiri Molema District of North West Province, South Africa. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was used for the detection of Campylobacter spp. targeting the 16S rRNA gene while antibiotic sensitivity was determined using disk diffusion inhibition test. RESULTS: After isolation, a total of 26 samples were confirmed to be harboring Campylobacter jejuni by PCR and sequencing. C. jejuni was found to be the only isolate detected in all the fecal samples tested. The study further demonstrated that C. jejuni infections were highest in the summer season (3%) followed by autumn and winter at 1%, while there were none detected in the spring. The isolated C. jejuni-positive samples on disk diffusion inhibition test displayed resistance to nalidixic acid, tetracycline, erythromycin, and ciprofloxacin at 98%, 80%, 83%, and 21%, respectively. CONCLUSION: C. jejuni isolated in this study is known to cause disease in humans, and thus its occurrence requires application of "One Health" strategy to reduce the spread of this zoonotic pathogen in South Africa.

Mosquito identification and haemosporidian parasites detection in the enclosure of the African penguins (Spheniscus demersus) at the SANBI zoological garden.

The National Zoological Gardens (NZG) is a facility of the South African National Biodiversity Institute (SANBI) and the largest zoo in southern Africa. Among the 9000 captive animals kept by the NZG, is the endangered African penguin (Spheniscus demersus). There have been several post-mortem reports on deaths of penguins in the NZG due to haemosporidian infections, however, the haemosporidian lineages involved and possible insect vector are unknown. Haemosporidians are apicomplexan parasites that infect vertebrates through blood-sucking dipteran insects. Therefore, the current study aimed to identify mosquitoes that are potential vectors found within the African penguin enclosure as well as to detect the haemosporidian parasites from these insects using nested-PCR and real-time PCR (qPCR) analyses. Mosquito samples were collected using an overnight UV-light trap setup for 3 months. From the 65 pooled samples representing 325 mosquitoes, morphological and molecular analysis showed that Culex pipiens (52.31%) was the dominant species followed by Cx. t heileri (30.77%) and Cx. quinquefasciatus (16.92%). Nested-PCR detected parasite DNA of Leucocytozoon sp. and Plasmodium sp. The Cx. pipiens had the highest minimum infection rate (MIR) of 5.88% by nested-PCR and 9.41% by qPCR whilst Cx. quinquefasciatus had MIR of 3.64% in both assays and no haemosporidian parasites were detected from Cx. t heileri. One Cx. pipiens sample had a co-infection of both Plasmodium sp. and Leucocytozoon sp. detected by nested-PCR. These findings suggest that effective control measures for blood-sucking dipteran insects is required at the NZG and more studies should be conducted to determine the actual prevalence of these haemosporidian parasites among other bird species within NZG.

Parasites of veterinary importance from domestic animals in uMkhanyakude district of KwaZulu-Natal province.

This study investigated the occurrence and phylogenetic relationship of protozoan parasites and Ehrlichia infecting domestic animals from three municipalities in uMkhanyakude district of KwaZulu-Natal province, South Africa. A total of 208 blood samples collected from clinically healthy cattle, sheep, goats and dogs from uMkhanyakude district were examined by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assays, using either genus or species-specific primers to determine the occurrence and phylogenetic relationship of various protozoan parasites and Ehrlichia of veterinary importance. A total of 5/109 (4.6%) cattle were PCR-positive for the presence of Toxoplasma gondii, 33/109 (30.3%) for Babesia bovis, 24/109 (22.02%) for Babesia bigemina and 20/109 (18.3%) for Trypanosoma sp., while 3/10 (30%) of sheep were PCR-positive for Theileria ovis and none of the goats were positive for any of the detected pathogens. The co-infection of 4/109 (3.7%) B. bovis and B. bigemina was detected in cattle. Only Ehrlichia canis was detected in dogs with infection rate of 20/48 (41.7%). Sequences of PCR-positive isolates (B. bovis, B. bigemina, E. canis, T. ovis and T. gondii) showed that they were closely related to their relevant species from various countries. These findings have expanded our knowledge about the prevalence and phylogenetic similarity between protozoan parasites and Ehrlichia isolates of South African origin. To date, this is the first study in South Africa to detect T. gondii infections from cattle blood using PCR.

Molecular detection of virulence genes in Salmonella spp. isolated from chicken faeces in Mafikeng, South Africa.

Chickens have been implicated in most Salmonella disease outbreaks because they act as carriers of the pathogen in their gut. There are over 2500 serotypes of Salmonella that have been reported worldwide and 2000 of these serovars can be found in chickens. The main objective of this study was to determine the Salmonella serotypes found in poultry farms around Mafikeng district, South Africa. Salmonella was identified according to the guidelines of the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) (ISO 6579:2002) standard techniques. Faecal samples were collected and analysed for Salmonella using conventional cultural methods and polymerase chain reaction targeting the 16S Ribosomal Deoxyribonucleic acid (rDNA) gene for Salmonella identification. Out of 130 presumptive Salmonella isolates determined by urease and triple sugar iron tests, only 46 isolates were identified as Salmonella serotypes of which S. Typhimurium was the most frequent with 18 (39.1%), followed by S. Heidelberg with 9 (19.6%), S. bongori with 7 (15.2%), S. Enteritidis with 6 (13.0%) and both S. Paratyphi B and S. Newport with 3 (6.5%) each. Seven virulence genes including invA 100%, spy 39%, hilA 9%, misL 30%, sdfI 13%, orfL 11% and spiC 9% were detected from these Salmonella isolates in this study. The presence of these virulence genes indicates high pathogenicity potential of these isolates which is a serious public health concern because of zoonotic potential of Salmonella.

Using detergent-enhanced LAMP for African trypanosome detection in human cerebrospinal fluid and implications for disease staging.

OBJECTIVE: Where human African trypanosomiasis (HAT) patients are seen, failure to microscopically diagnose infections by Trypanosoma brucei gambiense in blood smears and/or cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) in the critical early stages of the disease is the single most important factor in treatment failure, a result of delayed treatment onset or its absence. We hypothesized that the enhanced sensitivity of detergent-enhanced loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) will allow for point of care (POC) detection of African trypanosomes in the CSF of HAT patients where the probability for detecting a single parasite or parasite DNA molecule in 1 µL of CSF sample is negligible by current methods. METHODOLOGY: We used LAMP targeting the multicopy pan-T. brucei repetitive insertion mobile element (RIME LAMP) and the Trypanosoma brucei gambiense 5.8S rRNA-internal transcribed spacer 2 gene (TBG1 LAMP). We tested 1 µL out of 20 µL sham or Triton X-100 treated CSFs from 73 stage-1 and 77 stage-2 HAT patients from the Central African Republic and 100 CSF negative controls. RESULTS: Under sham conditions, parasite DNA was detected by RIME and TBG1 LAMP in 1.4% of the stage-1 and stage-2 gambiense HAT CSF samples tested. After sample incubation with detergent, the number of LAMP parasite positive stage-2 CSF's increased to 26%, a value which included the 2 of the 4 CSF samples where trypanosomes were identified microscopically. Unexpected was the 41% increase in parasite positive stage-1 CSF's detected by LAMP. Cohen's kappa coefficients for RIME versus TBG1 LAMP of 0.92 (95%CI: 0.82-1.00) for stage-1 and 0.90 (95%CI: 0.80-1.00) for stage-2 reflected a high level of agreement between the data sets indicating that the results were not due to amplicon contamination, data confirmed in χ2 tests (p<0.001) and Fisher's exact probability test (p = 4.7e-13). CONCLUSION: This study detected genomic trypanosome DNA in the CSF independent of the HAT stage and may be consistent with early CNS entry and other scenarios that identify critical knowledge gaps for future studies. Detergent-enhanced LAMP could be applicable for non-invasive African trypanosome detection in human skin and saliva or as an epidemiologic tool for the determination of human (or animal) African trypanosome prevalence in areas where chronically low parasitemias are present.

Molecular characterization of a new Trypanosoma (Megatrypanum) theileri isolate supports the two main phylogenetic lineages of this species in Japanese cattle.

Trypanosoma (Megatrypanum) theileri is a cosmopolitan, usually non-pathogenic, trypanosome of cattle transmitted by blood-sucking arthropods, mainly tabanid flies. Several T. theileri strains isolated from domestic and wild ruminants via co-culturing with mammalian feeder cells or blood cells have been characterized morphologically and genetically. Here, we cultured a new trypanosome isolate from a Holstein cow in Hokkaido, Japan, and performed morphological and molecular characterization studies. The new isolate (Obihiro strain) was co-cultivated with Madin-Darby bovine kidney (MDBK) cells in GIT medium supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum. Trypomastigotes and epimastigotes, but not intracellular parasites, were identified in the culture. Analysis of the V7-V8 region of 18S rRNA sequences showed that the Obihiro strain is positioned within the subgenus Megatrypanum. A dendrogram based on whole internal transcribed spacer rDNA sequence showed that the Obihiro strain clustered in the lineage TthII together with the Japanese isolates of T. theileri, Esashi 9, and Esashi 12, and isolates from Zambia and the USA. T. theileri of the KM strain and a T. theileri-like trypanosome isolated from deer (TSD1 strain) clustered in the lineage TthI, separate from the Obihiro strain. Based on a partial cathepsin L-like protein gene analysis, the Obihiro strain clustered with isolates of the TthIIF genotype, which includes T. theileri from Vietnam, Sri Lanka, and Brazil. Our analyses of the T. theileri Obihiro strain provide relevant insights into its genetic diversity in Japanese cattle and corroborate the host specificity of cattle and deer trypanosomes of the subgenus Megatrypanum.

Short- and long-term effects of orally administered azithromycin on Trypanosoma brucei brucei-infected mice.

Human African trypanosomosis (HAT) and animal African trypanosomosis (AAT) are diseases of economic importance in humans and animals that affect more than 36 African countries. The currently available trypanocidal drugs are associated with side effects, and the parasites are continually developing resistance. Thus, effective and safe drugs are needed for the treatment of HAT and AAT. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of azithromycin (AZM) on Trypanosoma brucei brucei-infected mice. Mice were randomly divided into 7 groups consisting of a vehicle control group, 5 test groups and a diminazene aceturate (DA)-treated group. Mice were treated orally for 7 and 28 days, as short-term and long-term treatments, respectively. Short-term AZM treatment cured 23% (16 of 70) of the overall treated mice whereas long-term treatment resulted in the survival of 70% of the mice in the groups that received AZM at doses of 300 and 400 mg/kg. Trypanosomes treated in vitro with 25 µg/mL of AZM were subjected to transmission electron microscopy, which revealed the presence of increased numbers of glycosomes and acidocalcisomes in comparison to the vehicle group. The current study showed the trypanocidal effect of AZM on T. b. brucei in vivo. The demonstrated efficacy increased with an increase in treatment period and an increased concentration of AZM.

Risk factors associated with occurrence of anthelmintic resistance in sheep of resource-poor farmers in Limpopo province, South Africa.

Anthelmintic treatment is the most common way of controlling nematode infections in ruminants even though several countries have reported anthelmintic resistance (AR), resulting in limitation for sustainable small ruminant production. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the knowledge of resource-poor sheep farmers in Limpopo province of South Africa on the use of anthelmintics. A questionnaire regarding helminthosis control practices was administered to small ruminant farmers in five districts of Limpopo province namely Capricorn, Sekhukhune, Waterberg, Vhembe, and Mopani. A total of 77 resource-poor farmers were interviewed between June and August of 2017 using a structured questionnaire with a combination of qualitative and quantitative open-ended questions. The interviewed farmers were divided into three groups based on their farming experience (< 5; 6-10, and ˃ 10 years of farming experience). Limited farming experience was shown as one of the risks, as farmers that owned sheep for less than 10 years could not identify the symptoms of gastrointestinal parasites infection and did not know how nematodes are transmitted to animals. However, no significant difference (p < 0.05) was found to exist between the three groups of farmers in terms of clinical signs identification and correct application of anthelmintics. About 43% of the respondents were unaware of gastrointestinal nematodes (GI) that infect sheep, could not identify the clinical symptoms of gastrointestinal nematodes infection, and only 34% knew how animals become infected. Although 67.5% of farmers mentioned that they never dose their sheep, 32.5% use anthelmintics at varying times in a year. None of the farmers weighed their sheep before dosing them instead visual appraisal of individual weight was the most common means of estimating the anthelmintic dose. The above information is an indication of risks associated with possible occurrence of anthelmintic resistance in the study areas. There is therefore, a need to give training to resource-poor farmers of small stock on proper application of anthelmintic treatment and to educate them on how to prevent development of AR. Future studies on AR should also be conducted in the province in flocks with high-treatment frequencies to establish the occurrence of AR using both in vivo and in vitro methods. The most common risk factor associated with the occurrence of AR in all the five districts of Limpopo province was found to be the use of anthelmintics without weighing the animals to determine the correct dosage.

Characterization of tabanid flies (Diptera: Tabanidae) in South Africa and Zambia and detection of protozoan parasites they are harbouring.

Tabanids are haematophagous flies feeding on livestock and wildlife. In the absence of information on the relationship of tabanid flies and protozoan parasites in South Africa and Zambia, the current study was aimed at characterizing tabanid flies collected in these two countries as well as detecting protozoan parasites they are harbouring. A total of 527 tabanid flies were collected whereby 70·2% were from South Africa and 29·8% were from Zambia. Morphological analysis revealed a total of five different genera collected from the sampled areas namely: Ancala, Atylotus, Haematopota, Philoliche and Tabanus. DNA extracted from South African Tabanus par and Tabanus taeniola tested positive for the presence of Trypanosoma congolense (Savannah) and Trypanosoma theileri whilst one member from T. par was positive for Trypanosoma brucei species. DNA extracted from Zambian tabanid flies tested positive for the presence of Besnoitia species at 1·27% (2/157), Babesia bigemina 5·73% (9/157), Theileria parva 30·11% (30/157) and 9·82% (14/157) for Trypanosoma evansi. This study is the first to report on relationship of Babesia and Theileria parasites with tabanid flies. Further investigations are required to determine the role of tabanids in transmission of the detected protozoan parasites in livestock and wildlife in South Africa and Zambia.

Loop-Mediated Isothermal Amplification for Detection of the 5.8S Ribosomal Ribonucleic Acid Internal Transcribed Spacer 2 Gene Found in Trypanosoma brucei gambiense.

The loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) assay with its advantages of cost effectiveness, rapidity, and simplicity, has evolved as a sensitive and specific method for the detection of African trypanosomes. Highly sensitive LAMP reactions specific for Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense or that recognize but do not discriminate between Trypanosoma brucei brucei, T. b. rhodesiense, Trypanosoma brucei gambiense, and Trypanosoma evansi have been developed. A sensitive LAMP assay targeting the T. b. gambiense 5.8S ribosomal RNA internal transcribed spacer 2 (5.8S-ITS2) gene is also available but this assay does not target binding sites that span the CCCA (C3A) (557-560 bps) insertion site that further differentiates T. b. gambiense from T. b. brucei Here we describe 5.8S-ITS2-targeted LAMP assay that fit these criteria. The LAMP primer sets containing the T. b. gambiense-specific C3A tetranucleotide at the start of the outer forward primer sequences showed high specificity and sensitivity down to at least 0.1 fg T. b. gambiense genomic DNA.

Epidemiology and evolution of the genetic variability of Anaplasma marginale in South Africa.

Bovine anaplasmosis caused by infection of cattle with Anaplasma marginale has been considered to be endemic in South Africa, an assumption based primarily on the distribution of the tick vectors of A. marginale and serological studies on the prevalence of anaplasmosis in Limpopo, Free State, and North West. However, molecular evidence of the distribution of anaplasmosis has only been reported in the Free State province. In order to establish effective control measures for anaplasmosis, epidemiological surveys are needed to define the prevalence and distribution of A. marginale in South Africa. In addition, a proposed control strategy for anaplasmosis is the development of an A. marginale major surface protein 1a (MSP1a)-based vaccine. Nevertheless, regional variations of this gene would need to be characterized prior to vaccine development for South Africa. The objectives of the present study were therefore to conduct a national survey of the prevalence of A. marginale in South Africa, followed by an evaluation of the diversity and evolution of msp1a in South African strains of A. marginale. To accomplish these objectives, species-specific PCR was used to test 250 blood samples from cattle collected from all South African provinces (including 26 districts and municipalities), except the Free State province where similar studies were reported previously. The prevalence of A. marginale ranged from 65% to 100%, except in Northern Cape province where A. marginale was not detected. A correlation was found between the prevalence and genetic diversity of A. marginale MSP1a. Additionally, the genetic diversity of the A. marginale MSP1a was found to evolve under negative and positive selection, and 23 new tandem repeats in South Africa were shown to have evolved from the extant tandem repeat 4. Despite the MSP1a genetic variability, some types of tandem repeats were found to be conserved among the A. marginale strains, and low-variable peptides in MSP1a tandem repeats were subsequently identified. The results of this research confirmed that anaplasmosis is endemic in South Africa. The results of the molecular characterization of the MSP1a can then be used as the basis for development of new and novel vaccines for anaplasmosis control in South Africa.