Advanced near-zero waste treatment of food processing wastewater with water, carbon, and nutrient recovery.

A near-zero waste treatment system for food processing wastewater was developed and studied. The wastewater was treated using an anaerobic membrane bioreactor (AnMBR), polished using an outdoor photobioreactor for microalgae cultivation (three species were studied), and excess sludge was treated using hydrothermal carbonization. The study was conducted under arid climate conditions for one year (four seasons). The AnMBR reduced the total organic carbon by 97%, which was mostly recovered as methane (~57%) and hydrochar (~4%). Microalgal biomass productivity in the AnMBR effluent ranged from 0.25 to 0.8 g·L-1·day-1. Nitrogen (N) and phosphorous (P) uptake varied seasonally, from 18 to 45 mg·L-1·day-1 and up to 5 mg·L-1·day-1, respectively. N and P mass balance analysis demonstrated that the process was highly efficient in the recovery of nitrogen (~77%), and phosphorus (~91%). The performance of the microalgal culture changed among seasons because of climatic variation, as a result of variation in the wastewater chemistry, and possibly due to differences among the microalgal species. Effluent standards for irrigation use were met throughout the year and were achieved within two days in summer and 4.5 days in winter. Overall, the study demonstrated a near-zero waste discharge system capable of producing high-quality effluent, achieving nutrient and carbon recovery into microalgae biomass, and energy production as biogas and hydrochar.

Quality Control and Pre-Analysis Treatment of the Environmental Datasets Collected by an Internet Operated Deep-Sea Crawler during Its Entire 7-Year Long Deployment (2009-2016).

Deep-sea environmental datasets are ever-increasing in size and diversity, as technological advances lead monitoring studies towards long-term, high-frequency data acquisition protocols. This study presents examples of pre-analysis data treatment steps applied to the environmental time series collected by the Internet Operated Deep-sea Crawler "Wally" during a 7-year deployment (2009-2016) in the Barkley Canyon methane hydrates site, off Vancouver Island (BC, Canada). Pressure, temperature, electrical conductivity, flow, turbidity, and chlorophyll data were subjected to different standardizing, normalizing, and de-trending methods on a case-by-case basis, depending on the nature of the treated variable and the range and scale of the values provided by each of the different sensors. The final pressure, temperature, and electrical conductivity (transformed to practical salinity) datasets are ready for use. On the other hand, in the cases of flow, turbidity, and chlorophyll, further in-depth processing, in tandem with data describing the movement and position of the crawler, will be needed in order to filter out all possible effects of the latter. Our work evidences challenges and solutions in multiparametric data acquisition and quality control and ensures that a big step is taken so that the available environmental data meet high quality standards and facilitate the production of reliable scientific results.

A Flexible Autonomous Robotic Observatory Infrastructure for Bentho-Pelagic Monitoring.

This paper presents the technological developments and the policy contexts for the project "Autonomous Robotic Sea-Floor Infrastructure for Bentho-Pelagic Monitoring" (ARIM). The development is based on the national experience with robotic component technologies that are combined and merged into a new product for autonomous and integrated ecological deep-sea monitoring. Traditional monitoring is often vessel-based and thus resource demanding. It is economically unviable to fulfill the current policy for ecosystem monitoring with traditional approaches. Thus, this project developed platforms for bentho-pelagic monitoring using an arrangement of crawler and stationary platforms at the Lofoten-Vesterålen (LoVe) observatory network (Norway). Visual and acoustic imaging along with standard oceanographic sensors have been combined to support advanced and continuous spatial-temporal monitoring near cold water coral mounds. Just as important is the automatic processing techniques under development that have been implemented to allow species (or categories of species) quantification (i.e., tracking and classification). At the same time, real-time outboard processed three-dimensional (3D) laser scanning has been implemented to increase mission autonomy capability, delivering quantifiable information on habitat features (i.e., for seascape approaches). The first version of platform autonomy has already been tested under controlled conditions with a tethered crawler exploring the vicinity of a cabled stationary instrumented garage. Our vision is that elimination of the tether in combination with inductive battery recharge trough fuel cell technology will facilitate self-sustained long-term autonomous operations over large areas, serving not only the needs of science, but also sub-sea industries like subsea oil and gas, and mining.

Ecological variables for developing a global deep-ocean monitoring and conservation strategy.

The deep sea (>200 m depth) encompasses >95% of the world's ocean volume and represents the largest and least explored biome on Earth (<0.0001% of ocean surface), yet is increasingly under threat from multiple direct and indirect anthropogenic pressures. Our ability to preserve both benthic and pelagic deep-sea ecosystems depends upon effective ecosystem-based management strategies and monitoring based on widely agreed deep-sea ecological variables. Here, we identify a set of deep-sea essential ecological variables among five scientific areas of the deep ocean: (1) biodiversity; (2) ecosystem functions; (3) impacts and risk assessment; (4) climate change, adaptation and evolution; and (5) ecosystem conservation. Conducting an expert elicitation (1,155 deep-sea scientists consulted and 112 respondents), our analysis indicates a wide consensus amongst deep-sea experts that monitoring should prioritize large organisms (that is, macro- and megafauna) living in deep waters and in benthic habitats, whereas monitoring of ecosystem functioning should focus on trophic structure and biomass production. Habitat degradation and recovery rates are identified as crucial features for monitoring deep-sea ecosystem health, while global climate change will likely shift bathymetric distributions and cause local extinction in deep-sea species. Finally, deep-sea conservation efforts should focus primarily on vulnerable marine ecosystems and habitat-forming species. Deep-sea observation efforts that prioritize these variables will help to support the implementation of effective management strategies on a global scale.

Treating wastewater by indigenous microalgae strain in pilot platform located inside a municipal wastewater treatment plant.

Various resources from a municipal wastewater treatment plant (MWTP) are available for microalgae cultivation plants, suggesting that a combination of these technologies can be used to produce microalgae biomass and remove contaminants at a low cost. In this study, the growth performance and nutrient removal efficiency of an indigenous Scenedesmus sp. in various wastewater media with different exchange patterns were investigated firstly, then transferred to a pilot-scale photobioreactor (located inside a MWTP) for bioremediation use. The temperature and pH of the platform were maintained at 15-30°C and 7.6, respectively. The N H 4 + -   N , N O 3 - -   N , and P O 4 3 - -   P of the wastewater could be reduced to below 0.05, 0.40, and 0.175 mg L-1, respectively. Our results indicate that microalgae cultivation using the resources of a MWTP can achieve high algal biomass productivity and nutrient removal rate. Our study also suggests that efficient technology for controlling zooplankton needs to be developed.

Characterization and utilization of hydrothermal carbonization aqueous phase as nutrient source for microalgal growth.

This study investigated the feasibility of using hydrothermal carbonization (HTC) aqueous phase as an alternative nutrient source for microalgae cultivation, and the microalgae cultivation capability to treat this complex medium to a level enabling its reuse or discharge. HTC of activated sludge was optimized in terms of the energy content of the solid hydrochar and the nutrient content of the HTC aqueous phase adequate for microalgal growth. Growth rates of Coelastrella sp. and Chlorella sp. in the HTC aqueous phase based growth medium and a control medium (mBG11) were similar, indicating that the HTC aqueous phase does not inhibit the microalgae growth. Nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations were reduced by >90% and dissolved organic carbon by 80% after 6 days of cultivation, resulting in water quality suitable for reuse or discharge. This study confirms the microalgae high potential in a circular bio-economy to valorize wet bio-waste streams from various treatment methods.

New High-Tech Flexible Networks for the Monitoring of Deep-Sea Ecosystems.

Increasing interest in the acquisition of biotic and abiotic resources from within the deep sea (e.g., fisheries, oil-gas extraction, and mining) urgently imposes the development of novel monitoring technologies, beyond the traditional vessel-assisted, time-consuming, high-cost sampling surveys. The implementation of permanent networks of seabed and water-column-cabled (fixed) and docked mobile platforms is presently enforced, to cooperatively measure biological features and environmental (physicochemical) parameters. Video and acoustic (i.e., optoacoustic) imaging are becoming central approaches for studying benthic fauna (e.g., quantifying species presence, behavior, and trophic interactions) in a remote, continuous, and prolonged fashion. Imaging is also being complemented by in situ environmental-DNA sequencing technologies, allowing the traceability of a wide range of organisms (including prokaryotes) beyond the reach of optoacoustic tools. Here, we describe the different fixed and mobile platforms of those benthic and pelagic monitoring networks, proposing at the same time an innovative roadmap for the automated computing of hierarchical ecological information on deep-sea ecosystems (i.e., from single species' abundance and life traits to community composition, and overall biodiversity).

Comparative lipidomic studies of Scenedesmus sp. (Chlorophyceae) and Cylindrotheca closterium (Bacillariophyceae) reveal their differences in lipid production under nitrogen starvation.

Microalgae are a promising resource for the highly sustainable production of various biomaterials (food and feed), high-value biochemicals, or biofuels. However, factors influencing the valued lipid production from oleaginous algae require a more detailed investigation. This study elucidates the variations in lipid metabolites between a marine diatom (Cylindrotheca closterium) and a freshwater green alga (Scenedesmus sp.) under nitrogen starvation at the molecular species level, with emphasis on triacylglycerols using liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization mass spectrometry techniques. A comprehensive analysis was carried out by comparing the changes in total lipids, growth kinetics, fatty acid compositions, and glycerolipid profiles at the molecular species level at different time points of nitrogen starvation. A total of 60 and 72 triacylglycerol molecular species, along with numerous other polar lipids, were identified in Scenedesmus sp. and C. closterium, respectively, providing the most abundant triacylglycerol profiles for these two species. During nitrogen starvation, more triacylglycerol of Scenedesmus sp. was synthesized via the "eukaryotic pathway" in the endoplasmic reticulum, whereas the increase in triacylglycerol in C. closterium was mainly a result of the "prokaryotic pathway" in the chloroplasts after 96 h of nitrogen starvation. The distinct responses of lipid synthesis to nitrogen starvation exhibited by the two species indicate different strategies of lipid accumulation, notably triacylglycerols, in green algae and diatoms. Scenedesmus sp. and Cylindrotheca closterium could serve as excellent candidates for the mass production of biofuels or polyunsaturated fatty acids for nutraceutical purposes.

Two-step process: Enhanced strategy for wastewater treatment using microalgae.

Microalgae possess many advantages, but the lack of a suitable strategy to simultaneously facilitate their low cost cultivation and high value productions limits their commercial applications. In this study, two microalgae strains (RT_C and RT_F) isolated from a municipal wastewater treatment plant were used to establish a two-step wastewater treatment process. During step-1, RT_C was cultivated in composite wastewater due to its high tolerance of sludge centrate; followed by step-2, in which the supernatant generated from RT_C culture was used to cultivate RT_F. The NH4+-N, PO43--P, and COD in the wastewater were removed almost completely using this strategy. Moreover, the majority of the metal ions in the wastewater were absorbed by RT_C during step-1, and thus the powdered RT_F only contained low levels of toxic metals. Our results demonstrate that this two-step process is effective for removing pollutants and while generating a powder sufficiently clean for extracting valuable compounds.

Changes in the fucoxanthin production and protein profiles in Cylindrotheca closterium in response to blue light-emitting diode light.

BACKGROUND: Marine diatoms have a higher fucoxanthin content in comparison to macroalgae. Fucoxanthin features many potent bioactive properties, particularly anti-obesity properties. Despite the great potential for harvesting larger amounts of fucoxanthin, the impacts of light quality (light source, intensity, and photoperiod) on fucoxanthin production and the essential proteins involved in fucoxanthin biosynthesis in marine diatoms remain unclear. RESULTS: In the present study, Cylindrotheca closterium was selected from four different species of diatoms based on its high fucoxanthin content and productivity. Optimal light conditions (light source, intensity, and regime) were determined by a "Design of Experiment" approach (software MODDE Pro 11 was used). The model indicated that an 18/6 light/darkness regime increased fucoxanthin productivity remarkably as opposed to a 12/12 or 24/0 regime. Eventually, blue light-emitting diode light, as an alternative to fluorescent light, at 100 µmol/m2/s and 18/6 light/darkness regime yielded maximum fucoxanthin productivity and minimal energy consumption. The fucoxanthin production of C. closterium under the predicted optimal light conditions was assessed both in bottle and bag photobioreactors (PBRs). The high fucoxanthin content (25.5 mg/g) obtained from bag PBRs demonstrated the feasibility of large-scale production. The proteomes of C. closterium under the most favorable and unfavorable fucoxanthin biosynthesis light/darkness regimes (18/6 and 24/0, respectively) were compared to identify the essential proteins associated with fucoxanthin accumulation by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization-time of flight-mass spectrometry. Six proteins that were up-regulated in the 18/6 regime but down-regulated in the 24/0 were identified as important chloroplastic proteins involved in photosynthesis, energy metabolism, and cellular processes. CONCLUSIONS: Blue light-emitting diode light at 100 µmol/m2/s and 18/6 light/darkness regime induced maximum fucoxanthin productivity in C. closterium and minimized energy consumption. The high fucoxanthin production in the bag photobioreactor under optimal light conditions demonstrated the possibility of commercialization. Proteomics suggests that fucoxanthin biosynthesis is intimately associated with the photosynthetic efficiency of the diatom, providing another technical and bioengineering outlook on fucoxanthin enhancement.

The Oceanic Biological Pump: Rapid carbon transfer to depth at Continental Margins during Winter.

The oceanic biological pump is responsible for the important transfer of CO2-C as POC "Particulate Organic Carbon" to the deep sea. It plays a decisive role in the Earth's carbon cycle and significant effort is spent to quantify its strength. In this study we used synchronized daily time-series data of surface chlorophyll-a concentrations from the NASA's MODIS satellite in combination with hourly to daily observations from sea surface buoys and from an Internet Operated Vehicle (IOV) on the seafloor within Barkley Canyon (Northeast Pacific) to investigate the importance of winter processes in the export of fresh phytodetritus. The results indicate that phytoplankton pulses during winter can be as important in POC transfer to depth as the pulses associated with spring and summer blooms. Short winter phytoplankton pulses were observed to disappear from surface waters after low-pressure systems affected the area. Pulses of chlorophyll reached the IOV, at 870 m depth on the canyon seafloor, 12-72 hours later. These observed short pulses of biological carbon production regularly observed in the region from December to March have not been considered a significant component of the biological pump when compared with the denser summer productivity blooms.

Seasonal monitoring of deep-sea megabenthos in Barkley Canyon cold seep by internet operated vehicle (IOV).

Knowledge of the processes shaping deep-sea benthic communities at seasonal scales in cold-seep environments is incomplete. Cold seeps within highly dynamic regions, such as submarine canyons, where variable current regimes may occur, are particularly understudied. Novel Internet Operated Vehicles (IOVs), such as tracked crawlers, provide new techniques for investigating these ecosystems over prolonged periods. In this study a benthic crawler connected to the NEPTUNE cabled infrastructure operated by Ocean Networks Canada was used to monitor community changes across 60 m2 of a cold-seep area of the Barkley Canyon, North East Pacific, at ~890 m depth within an Oxygen Minimum Zone (OMZ). Short video-transects were run at 4-h intervals during the first week of successive calendar months, over a 14 month period (February 14th 2013 to April 14th 2014). Within each recorded transect video megafauna abundances were computed and changes in environmental conditions concurrently measured. The responses of fauna to environmental conditions as a proxy of seasonality were assessed through analysis of abundances in a total of 438 video-transects (over 92 h of total footage). 7698 fauna individuals from 6 phyla (Cnidaria, Ctenophora, Arthropoda, Echinodermata, Mollusca, and Chordata) were logged and patterns in abundances of the 7 most abundant taxa (i.e. rockfish Sebastidae, sablefish Anoplopoma fimbria, hagfish Eptatretus stoutii, buccinids (Buccinoidea), undefined small crabs, ctenophores Bolinopsis infundibulum, and Scyphomedusa Poralia rufescens) were identified. Patterns in the reproductive behaviour of the grooved tanner crab (Chionnecetes tanneri) were also indicated. Temporal variations in biodiversity and abundance in megabenthic fauna was significantly influenced by variabilities in flow velocity flow direction (up or down canyon), dissolved oxygen concentration and month of study. Also reported here for the first time are transient mass aggregations of grooved tanner crabs through these depths of the canyon system, in early spring and likely linked to the crab's reproductive cycle.

High-Frequency Patterns in the Abundance of Benthic Species near a Cold-Seep - An Internet Operated Vehicle Application.

Three benthic megafaunal species (i.e. sablefish Anoplopoma fimbria; pacific hagfish Eptatretus stoutii and a group of juvenile crabs) were tested for diel behavioral patterns at the methane hydrates site of Barkley Canyon (890 m depth), off Vancouver Island (BC, Canada). Fluctuations of animal counts in linear video-transects conducted with the Internet Operated Deep-Sea Crawler "Wally" in June, July and December of 2013, were used as proxy of population activity rhythms. Count time series and environmental parameters were analyzed under the hypothesis that the environmental conditioning of activity rhythms depends on the life habits of particular species (i.e. movement type and trophic level). Non-linear least squares modeling of biological time series revealed significant diel periods for sablefish in summer and for hagfish and crabs in December. Combined cross-correlation and redundancy (RDA) analyses showed strong relationships among environmental fluctuations and detected megafauna. In particular, sablefish presence during summer months was related to flow magnitude, while the activity of pacific hagfish and juvenile crabs in December correlated with change in chemical parameters (i.e. chlorophyll and oxygen concentrations, respectively). Waveform analyses of animal counts and environmental variables confirmed the phase delay during the 24 h cycle. The timing of detection of sablefish occurred under low flow velocities, a possible behavioral adaptation to the general hypoxic conditions. The proposed effect of chlorophyll concentrations on hagfish counts highlights the potential role of phytodetritus as an alternative food source for this opportunistic feeder. The juvenile crabs seemed to display a cryptic behavior, possibly to avoid predation, though this was suppressed when oxygen levels were at a minimum. Our results highlight the potential advantages such mobile observation platforms offer in multiparametric deep-sea monitoring in terms of both spatial and temporal resolution and add to the vastly understudied field of diel rhythms of deep-sea megafauna.

Anaerobic Digestion of Laminaria japonica Waste from Industrial Production Residues in Laboratory- and Pilot-Scale.

The cultivation of macroalgae to supply the biofuel, pharmaceutical or food industries generates a considerable amount of organic residue, which represents a potential substrate for biomethanation. Its use optimizes the total resource exploitation by the simultaneous disposal of waste biomaterials. In this study, we explored the biochemical methane potential (BMP) and biomethane recovery of industrial Laminaria japonica waste (LJW) in batch, continuous laboratory and pilot-scale trials. Thermo-acidic pretreatment with industry-grade HCl or industrial flue gas condensate (FGC), as well as a co-digestion approach with maize silage (MS) did not improve the biomethane recovery. BMPs between 172 mL and 214 mL g(-1) volatile solids (VS) were recorded. We proved the feasibility of long-term continuous anaerobic digestion with LJW as sole feedstock showing a steady biomethane production rate of 173 mL g(-1) VS. The quality of fermentation residue was sufficient to serve as biofertilizer, with enriched amounts of potassium, sulfur and iron. We further demonstrated the upscaling feasibility of the process in a pilot-scale system where a CH4 recovery of 189 L kg(-1) VS was achieved and a biogas composition of 55% CH4 and 38% CO2 was recorded.

Thermo-Acidic Pretreatment of Beach Macroalgae from Rügen to Optimize Biomethane Production--Double Benefit with Simultaneous Bioenergy Production and Improvement of Local Beach and Waste Management.

Eutrophication is a phenomenon which can rapidly generate masses of marine macroalgae, particularly in areas with high nutrient pollution. Washed ashore, this biomass impairs coastal tourism and negatively affects the coastal ecosystem. The present study evaluates the biochemical methane potential (BMP) of a macroalgae mix (Rügen-Mix, RM (RM = Rügen-Mix)) originating from Rügen, Germany. To improve biomethane recovery, thermo-acidic pretreatment was applied to the biomass prior to biomethanation to disintegrate the biomass macrostructure. Acid hydrolysis was successfully triggered with 0.2 M industry-grade HCl at 80 °C for a 2 h period, increasing biomethane recovery by +39%, with a maximum BMP of 121 mL·g(-1) volatile solids (VS). To reduce the necessity for input material, HCl was replaced by the acidic waste product flue gas condensate (FGC). Improved performance was achieved by showing an increase in biomethane recovery of +24% and a maximum BMP of 108 mL·g(-1) VS. Continuous anaerobic digestion trials of RM were conducted for three hydraulic retention times, showing the feasibility of monodigestion. The biomethane recovery was 60 mL and 65 mL·g(-1) VS·d(-1) for thermophilic and mesophilic operation, respectively. The quality of biomethanation performance aligned to the composition of the source material which exhibited a low carbon/nitrogen ratio and an increased concentration of sulfur compounds.

Real time observation system for monitoring environmental impact on marine ecosystems from oil drilling operations.

Environmental awareness and technological advances has spurred development of new monitoring solutions for the petroleum industry. This paper presents experience from a monitoring program off Norway. To maintain operation within the limits of the government regulations Statoil tested a new monitoring concept. Multisensory data were cabled to surface buoys and transmitted to land via wireless communication. The system collected information about distribution of the drilling wastes and the welfare of the corals in relation to threshold values. The project experienced a series of failures, but the backup monitoring provided information to fulfil the requirements of the permit. The experience demonstrated the need for real time monitoring and how such systems enhance understanding of impacts on marine organisms. Also, drilling operations may improve by taking environmental information into account. The paper proposes to standardize and streamline monitoring protocols to maintain comparability during all phases of the operation and between drill sites.

Tolerance to long-term exposure of suspended benthic sediments and drill cuttings in the cold-water coral Lophelia pertusa.

The cold-water coral Lophelia pertusa was exposed to suspended particles (<63 µm) for 12 weeks. Skeletal growth was significantly lower under exposure concentrations of ∼25 mg l⁻¹ than ∼5 mg l⁻¹ and there was a trend of lower growth rates when exposed to water-based drill cuttings than to natural benthic sediment. Polyp extension was less in corals exposed to higher material concentrations, which provides a possible explanation for observed skeletal growth differences between particle concentrations. Particle exposure had no significant impact on respiration or proportions of tissue and fatty acids in corals. The volume of additional cleaning mucus released by exposed corals was low and release did not significantly affect coral energy expenditure. Our results indicate that L. pertusa polyps can deal comparatively well with enhanced particle deposition rates and suspended matter concentrations. However, a small pilot experiment indicated that coral larvae might be particularly vulnerable to high particle concentrations.

Effects of ocean acidification on the ballast of surface aggregates sinking through the twilight zone.

The dissolution of CaCO(3) is one of the ways ocean acidification can, potentially, greatly affect the ballast of aggregates. A diminution of the ballast could reduce the settling speed of aggregates, resulting in a change in the carbon flux to the deep sea. This would mean lower amounts of more refractory organic matter reaching the ocean floor. This work aimed to determine the effect of ocean acidification on the ballast of sinking surface aggregates. Our hypothesis was that the decrease of pH will increase the dissolution of particulate inorganic carbon ballasting the aggregates, consequently reducing their settling velocity and increasing their residence time in the upper twilight zone. Using a new methodology for simulation of aggregate settling, our results suggest that future pCO(2) conditions can significantly change the ballast composition of sinking aggregates. The change in aggregate composition had an effect on the size distribution of the aggregates, with a shift to smaller aggregates. A change also occurred in the settling velocity of the particles, which would lead to a higher residence time in the water column, where they could be continuously degraded. In the environment, such an effect would result in a reduction of the carbon flux to the deep-sea. This reduction would impact those benthic communities, which rely on the vertical flow of carbon as primary source of energy.

Monitoring strategies for drill cutting discharge in the vicinity of cold-water coral ecosystems.

Cold-water coral reefs represent some of the most biodiverse and biomass rich ecosystems in the marine environment. Despite this, ecosystem functioning is still poorly understood and the susceptibility of key species to anthropogenic activities and pollutants is unknown. In European waters, cold-water corals are often found in greatest abundance on the continental margin, often in regions rich in hydrocarbon reserves. In this viewpoint paper we discuss some of the current strategies employed in predicting and minimizing exposure of cold-water coral reef ecosystems on the Norwegian margin to waste materials produced during offshore drilling operations by the oil and gas industry. In the light of recent in situ and experimental research conducted with the key reef species Lophelia pertusa, we present some possible improvements to these strategies which may be utilized by industry and managers to further reduce the likelihood of exposure. We further highlight important outstanding research questions in this field.