The validity of the selection methods for recruitment to UK core psychiatry training: cohort study.

AIMS AND METHOD: Selection into core psychiatry training in the UK uses a computer-delivered Multi-Specialty Recruitment Assessment (MSRA; a situational judgement and clinical problem-solving test) and, previously, a face-to-face Selection Centre. The Selection Centre assessments were suspended during the COVID-19 pandemic. We aimed to evaluate the validity of this selection process using data on 3510 psychiatry applicants. We modelled the ability of the selection scores to predict subsequent performance in the Clinical Assessment of Skills and Competencies (CASC). Sensitivity to demographic characteristics was also estimated. RESULTS: All selection assessment scores demonstrated positive, statistically significant, independent relationships with CASC performance and were sensitive to demographic factors. IMPLICATIONS: All selection components showed independent predictive validity. Re-instituting the Selection Centre assessments could be considered, although the costs, potential advantages and disadvantages should be weighed carefully.

New evidence on the validity of the selection methods for recruitment to general practice training: a cohort study.

BACKGROUND: Selection into UK-based GP training has used the Multi-Specialty Recruitment Assessment (MSRA) and a face-to-face selection centre (SC). The MSRA comprises of a situational judgement test and clinical problem-solving test. The SC was suspended during the COVID-19 pandemic. Evidence is needed to guide national and international selection policy. AIM: To evaluate the validity of GP training selection. DESIGN & SETTING: A retrospective cohort study using data from UK-based national recruitment to GP training, from 2015-2021. METHOD: Data were available for 32 215 GP training applicants. The ability of scores from the specialty selection process to predict subsequent performance in the Clinical Skills Assessment (CSA) of the Membership of the Royal College of General Practitioners examination was modelled using path analysis. The effect sizes for sex, professional family background, and world region of qualification were estimated. RESULTS: All component scores of the selection process demonstrated statistically significant independent relationships with CSA performance (P<0.001), thus establishing their predictive validity. All were sensitive to demographic factors. The SC scores had the weakest relationship with future CSA performance. However, for candidates with MSRA scores below the lowest quartile, the relative contribution of the SC scores to predicting CSA performance was similar to that observed for MSRA components. CONCLUSION: The MSRA has predictive validity in this context. Re-instituting an SC for those with relatively low MSRA scores should be considered. However, the relative costs and potential advantages and disadvantages should be carefully weighed.

The cross-cutting edge: Medical selection and education viewed through the lens of emotional intelligence.

CONTEXT: Evidence suggesting the benefits of compassionate, person-centred care, for both patients and physicians is accruing. Medical selection, for example, aims to choose future health professionals that possess the correct attitudes, beliefs and personal attributes to deliver such care. Moreover, once in training, these desirable personal qualities should be developed and maintained, sometimes in the face of adverse health care service conditions. However, advances in selecting for, and developing, these abilities and attributes in health care have been hindered by a lack of clarity regarding how the relevant skills and traits should be defined, measured, developed and maintained in clinicians. METHODS: In this article, we demonstrate how developments in the emotional intelligence (EI) field can be applied to the challenge of selecting for, and developing, relevant interpersonal care skills in medical students and physicians. The concept of EI itself has been somewhat controversial. However, a more nuanced understanding of EI has evolved in the light of research findings that can be applied to medical selection and education. Specifically, we propose modifications to the existing 'cascading' model of EI. This model identifies, and relates, several key socioemotional skills and traits that could be considered as 'the elementary particles' of EI required to deliver compassionate, person-centred care. CONCLUSIONS: Our model of EI, which is relevant to care delivery, identifies putative targets for both medical selection and training. Selection for medical school and subsequent clinical education should focus on screening out those with low levels of the traits and abilities less amenable to training. Conversely, medical education should be concerned with developing and maintaining the socioemotional skills, attitudes and behaviours critical to the delivery of compassionate, person-centred care. This is especially important for specialties characterised by high levels of emotional labour and possible resultant compassion fatigue.

Recruiting a Person-Centered Direct Care Workforce Through Situational Judgement Tests: A Pilot Study in the Community Support of Older People in England.

Background and Objectives: Studies have found that older people value care workers' character traits and interpersonal judgment even more highly than their technical skills. Yet identifying these traits at recruitment is challenging. This study aimed to evaluate the first situational judgement tests (STJs) for direct care workers. Research Design and Methods: Online tests were conducted with 251 care workers and members of the public in England. Participants evaluated the appropriateness of 61 potential behavioral responses to 11 "critical incidents," each depicting challenging care work scenarios. Data collection included a measure of personality traits. A subsample of 72 participants completed a second "test-retest" assessment. Results: A majority of test-takers (53%) found the test easy/very easy to complete, and most (55%) participants who worked in care reported the scenarios were highly realistic. Psychometric tests were positive. Test scores were unidimensional under a Confirmatory Factor Analysis (RMSEA = 0.038), and items broadly fit Rasch assumptions. Test-retest reliability (rho = 0.77) was acceptable, and for the general public sample, a modest increase in perceptions of the social standing of care work was observed. Test scores were positively correlated with 2 personality traits: agreeableness (r = 0.250, p < 0.001) and openness to experience (r = 0.179, p = .005). Test scores were not related to age, gender, or education level. Discussion and Implications: The findings indicate support for the use of SJTs in direct care work. Its psychometric properties appear satisfactory, and collectively give confidence in the use of SJTs for assessing the suitability of candidates during recruitment. Further research should corroborate these findings in a new sample, and examine the relationship between test scores and job performance.

Assessing professionalism in mental health clinicians: development and validation of a situational judgement test.

BACKGROUND: Situational judgement test (SJT) scores have been observed to predict actual workplace performance. They are commonly used to assess non-academic attributes as part of selection into many healthcare roles. However, no validated SJT yet exists for recruiting into mental health services. AIMS: To develop and validate an SJT that can evaluate procedural knowledge of professionalism in applicants to clinical roles in mental health services. METHOD: SJT item content was generated through interviews and focus groups with 56 professionals, patients and carers related to a large National Health Service mental health trust in England. These subject matter experts informed the content of the final items for the SJT. The SJT was completed by 73 registered nurses and 36 allied health professionals (AHPs). The primary outcome measure was supervisor ratings of professionalism and effectiveness on a relative percentile rating scale and was present for 69 of the participating nurses and AHPs. Personality assessment scores were reported as a secondary outcome. RESULTS: SJT scores statistically significantly predicted ratings of professionalism (ß = 0.31, P = 0.01) and effectiveness (ß = 0.32, P = 0.01). The scores demonstrated statistically significant incremental predictive validity over the personality assessment scores for predicting supervisor ratings of professionalism (ß = 0.26, P = 0.03). CONCLUSIONS: These findings demonstrate that a carefully designed SJT can validly assess important personal attributes in clinicians working in mental health services. Such assessments are likely to represent evidence based, cost-effective tools that can support values-based recruitment to mental health service roles.

Debate: Better use of existing services, not more new pathways, is required for psychosis prevention in young people - Commentary on Salazar de Pablo and Arango: 'Prevention of psychosis in adolescents: does CAMHS have a role?'

BACKGROUND: There has been much academic interest in 'the clinical high-risk state for psychosis' (CHR-P) concept. Whilst early intervention in psychosis (EIP) services have offered input to individuals meeting the CHR-P criteria the involvement of CAMHS clinicians in supporting young people with ideational and perceptual disturbance has been more inconsistent and uncertain. METHOD: We bring together our relevant lived experience, empirical evidence and clinical and research expertise to write this commentary. RESULTS: We assert that the CHR-P paradigm needs to be revised. This should reflect the low transition rates to psychosis and the prevalent general, impairing psychopathology in individuals meeting these criteria. Nevertheless, it is clear that both CAMHS and EIP services have potential roles in meeting the needs of young people affected by distressing ideational and perceptual disturbance. CONCLUSIONS: We suggest that new care pathways and services are not required for young people affected by distressing psychosis-like experiences. Rather more effective joint working between CAMHS, EIP, crisis services and other agencies could meet the needs of these young people more comprehensively.

Mental health trajectories in university students across the COVID-19 pandemic: findings from the Student Wellbeing at Northern England Universities prospective cohort study.

Introduction: Psychological wellbeing in university students is receiving increased focus. However, to date, few longitudinal studies in this population have been conducted. As such, in 2019, we established the Student Wellbeing At Northern England Universities (SWANS) cohort at the University of York, United Kingdom aiming to measure student mental health and wellbeing every six months. Furthermore, the study period included the COVID-19 pandemic, giving an opportunity to track student wellbeing over time, including over the pandemic. Methods: Eligible participants were invited to participate via email. Data were collected, using Qualtrics, from September 2019 to April 2021, across five waves (W1 to W5). In total, n = 4,622 students participated in at least one wave of the survey. Data collection included sociodemographic, educational, personality measures, and mental health and wellbeing. Latent profile analyses were performed, exploring trajectories of student wellbeing over the study period for those who had completed at least three of the five waves of the survey (n = 765), as measured by the Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Wellbeing Scale (WEMWBS). Results: Five latent profile trajectories of student wellbeing were identified. Of these, the two latent classes with initially higher wellbeing scores had broadly stable wellbeing across time (total n = 505, 66%). Two classes had lower initial scores, which lowered further across time (total n = 227, 30%). Additionally, a fifth class of students was identified who improved substantially over the study period, from a mean WEMWBS of 30.4 at W1, to 49.4 at W5 (n = 33, 4%). Risk factors for having less favourable wellbeing trajectories generally included identifying as LGBT+, self-declaring a disability, or previously being diagnosed with a mental health condition. Conclusion: Our findings suggest a mixed picture of the effect of the COVID-19 pandemic on student wellbeing, with a majority showing broadly consistent levels of wellbeing across time, a smaller but still substantial group showing a worsening of wellbeing, and a small group that showed a very marked improvement in wellbeing. Those from groups traditionally underrepresented in higher education were most at risk of poorer wellbeing. This raises questions as to whether future support for wellbeing should target specific student subpopulations.

Barriers and enablers for young people, parents and therapists undertaking behavioural activation for depression: A qualitative evaluation within a randomised controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: Adolescent depression is common, long-lasting and debilitating. Behavioural Activation (BA) is a brief, evidence-based therapy for depression in adults with promising outcomes for young people. OBJECTIVES: We sought to understand how young people, their parents and therapists experienced manualised BA for depression within Child and Adolescent Mental Health Services. DESIGN: Participants in a randomised controlled trial aged 12 to17 with depression, their parents and therapists were invited to a semi-structured interview with a researcher to explore their experiences of receiving, supporting or delivering BA. METHODS: Six young people, five parents and five therapists were interviewed. Verbatim interview transcripts were coded using thematic analysis. RESULTS: Factors that may optimise delivery of BA were: boosting the young person's motivation, tailoring parental input to the young person's needs/wishes and developing a positive collaboration between the young person and therapist. Engagement with treatment may be hindered by a mismatch between BA delivery and young person's preferences, concurrent mental health comorbidities that are not addressed within a wider care package, lack of parental support and therapist preconceptions against manualised therapy or BA. CONCLUSIONS: Manualised BA for young people requires flexibility and adjustment to meet individual and family needs. Therapist preparation could dispel hindering preconceptions about the suitability and potential value of this brief and simple intervention for young people with complex needs and different learning styles.

The Measurement Properties and Acceptability of a New Parent-Infant Bonding Tool ('Me and My Baby') for Use in United Kingdom Universal Healthcare Settings: A Psychometric, Cross-Sectional Study.

INTRODUCTION: The National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) guidelines acknowledge the importance of the parent-infant relationship for child development but highlight the need for further research to establish reliable tools for assessment, particularly for parents of children under 1 year. This study explores the acceptability and psychometric properties of a co-developed tool, 'Me and My Baby' (MaMB). STUDY DESIGN: A cross-sectional design was applied. The MaMB was administered universally (in two sites) with mothers during routine 6-8-week Health Visitor contacts. The sample comprised 467 mothers (434 MaMB completers and 33 'non-completers'). Dimensionality of instrument responses were evaluated via exploratory and confirmatory ordinal factor analyses. Item response modeling was conducted via a Rasch calibration to evaluate how the tool conformed to principles of 'fundamental measurement'. Tool acceptability was evaluated via completion rates and comparing 'completers' and 'non-completers' demographic differences on age, parity, ethnicity, and English as an additional language. Free-text comments were summarized. Data sharing agreements and data management were compliant with the General Data Protection Regulation, and University of York data management policies. RESULTS: High completion rates suggested the MaMB was acceptable. Psychometric analyses showed the response data to be an excellent fit to a unidimensional confirmatory factor analytic model. All items loaded statistically significantly and substantially (>0.4) on a single underlying factor (latent variable). The item response modeling showed that most MaMB items fitted the Rasch model. (Rasch) item reliability was high (0.94) yet the test yielded little information on each respondent, as highlighted by the relatively low 'person separation index' of 0.1. CONCLUSION AND NEXT STEPS: MaMB reliably measures a single construct, likely to be infant bonding. However, further validation work is needed, preferably with 'enriched population samples' to include higher-need/risk families. The MaMB tool may benefit from reduced response categories (from four to three) and some modest item wording amendments. Following further validation and reliability appraisal the MaMB may ultimately be used with fathers/other primary caregivers and be potentially useful in research, universal health settings as part of a referral pathway, and clinical practice, to identify dyads in need of additional support/interventions.

Situational judgement test performance and subsequent misconduct in medical students.

INTRODUCTION: Situational judgement tests (SJTs) have been widely adopted, internationally, into medical selection. It was hoped that such assessments could identify candidates likely to exhibit future professional behaviours. Understanding how performance on such tests may predict the risk of disciplinary action during medical school would provide evidence for the validity of such SJTs within student selection. It would also inform the implementation of such tests within student recruitment. METHODS: This cohort study used data for 6910 medical students from 36 UK medical schools who sat the University Clinical Aptitude Test (UCAT) SJT in 2013. The relationship between SJT scores at application and the risk of subsequent disciplinary action during their studies was modelled. The incremental ability of the SJT scores to predict the risk of disciplinary action, above that already provided by UCAT cognitive test scores and secondary (high) school achievement, was also evaluated in 5535 of the students with information available on this latter metric. RESULTS: Two hundred and ten (3.05%) of the students in the cohort experienced disciplinary action. The risk of disciplinary action reduced with increasing performance on the admissions SJT (odds ratio (OR) 0.80, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.69 to 0.92, p = 0.002). This effect remained similar after adjusting for cognitive performance and prior academic attainment (OR 0.77, 95% CI 0.65 to 0.92, p = 0.004). The overall estimated effect-size was small (Cohen's d = 0.08) and no evidence of 'threshold' effects were observed for the SJT scores and risk of disciplinary action. CONCLUSIONS: Performance on admissions SJTs can, at least modestly, incrementally predict the risk of subsequent disciplinary action, supporting their use in this context. However, for this SJT and outcome, there did not seem a distinct threshold score above which the risk of disciplinary action disproportionately increased. This should be considered when using the scores within medical selection.

Feasibility of an automated interview grounded in multiple mini interview (MMI) methodology for selection into the health professions: an international multimethod evaluation.

OBJECTIVES: Global, COVID-driven restrictions around face-to-face interviews for healthcare student selection have forced admission staff to rapidly adopt adapted online systems before supporting evidence is available. We have developed, what we believe is, the first automated interview grounded in multiple mini-interview (MMI) methodology. This study aimed to explore test-retest reliability, acceptability and usability of the system. DESIGN, SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS: Multimethod feasibility study in Physician Associate programmes from two UK and one US university during 2019-2020. PRIMARY, SECONDARY OUTCOMES: Feasibility measures (test-retest reliability, acceptability and usability) were assessed using intraclass correlation (ICC), descriptive statistics, thematic and content analysis. METHODS: Volunteers took (T1), then repeated (T2), the automated MMI, with a 7-day interval (±2) then completed an evaluation questionnaire. Admission staff participated in focus group discussions. RESULTS: Sixty-two students and seven admission staff participated; 34 students and 4 staff from UK and 28 students and 3 staff from US universities. Good-excellent test-retest reliability was observed at two sites (US and UK2) with T1 and T2 ICC between 0.65 and 0.81 (p<0.001) when assessed by individual total scores (range 80.6-119), station total scores 0.6-0.91, p<0.005 and individual site (≥0.79 p<0.001). Mean test re-test ICC across all three sites was 0.82 p<0.001 (95% CI 0.7 to 0.9). Admission staff reported potential to reduce resource costs and bias through a more objective screening tool for preselection or to replace some MMI stations in a 'hybrid model'. Maintaining human interaction through 'touch points' was considered essential. Users positively evaluated the system, stating it was intuitive with an accessible interface. Concepts chosen for dynamic probing needed to be appropriately tailored. CONCLUSION: These preliminary findings suggest that the system is reliable, generating consistent scores for candidates and is acceptable to end users provided human touchpoints are maintained. Thus, there is evidence for the potential of such an automated system to augment healthcare student selection.

Can achievement at medical admission tests predict future performance in postgraduate clinical assessments? A UK-based national cohort study.

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether scores on two undergraduate admissions tests (BioMedical Admissions Test (BMAT) and University Clinical Aptitude Test (UCAT)) predict performance on the postgraduate Membership of the Royal Colleges of Physicians (MRCP) examination, including the clinical examination Practical Assessment of Clinical Examination Skills (PACES). DESIGN: National cohort study. SETTING: Doctors who graduated medical school between 2006 and 2018. PARTICIPANTS: 3045 doctors who had sat BMAT, UCAT and the MRCP. PRIMARY OUTCOME MEASURES: Passing each section of the MRCP at the first attempt, including the clinical assessment PACES. RESULTS: Several BMAT and UCAT subtest scores displayed incremental predictive validity for performance on the first two (written) parts of the MRCP. Only aptitude and skills on BMAT (OR 1.34, 1.08 to 1.67, p=0.01) and verbal reasoning on UCAT (OR 1.34, 1.04 to 1.71, p=0.02) incrementally predicted passing PACES at the first attempt. CONCLUSIONS: Our results imply that the abilities assessed by aptitude and skills and verbal reasoning may be the most important cognitive attributes, of those routinely assessed at selection, for predicting future clinical performance. Selectors may wish to consider placing particular weight on scales assessing these attributes if they wish to select applicants likely to become more competent clinicians. These results are potentially relevant in an international context too, since many admission tests used globally, such as the Medical College Admission Test, assess similar abilities.

Technology Matters: Machine learning approaches to personalised child and adolescent mental health care.

There has been much interest in the potential for machine learning and artificial intelligence to enhance health care. In this article, we discuss the potential applications of the technology to child and adolescent mental health services (CAMHS). We also outline the four key criteria that are likely to be necessary for automated prediction to be translated into clinical benefit. These relate to the choice of task to be automated, the nature of the available data, the methods applied and the context of the system to be implemented.

Great expectations: views and perceptions of professionalism amongst mental health services staff, patients and carers.

BACKGROUND: Numerous studies have explored the concept of 'professionalism' in medicine, yet little attention has been paid to the concept in a mental health services context. AIMS: This study sought to determine how the lived experience of patients, carers and healthcare professionals in mental health services align with medically defined, generic, professionalism standards. METHOD: Interviews and focus groups were conducted with patients, carers, nurses, occupational therapists, psychiatrists and psychologists. A framework analysis approach was used to analyse the data, based on the 'Improving Selection to the Foundation Programmes' Professional Attributes Framework. RESULTS: Fifty-six individuals participated. Data aligned to all nine attributes of the Professional Attributes Framework, however the expectations within each attribute varied from that originally cited. A tenth attribute was devised during the process of analysis; Working with Carers. This attribute acknowledges the need to liaise with, and support carers in mental health services. Situational examples included both online and offline behaviours and the topic of 'black humour' emerged. CONCLUSIONS: Compared to a conventional medical definition of professionalism, additional themes and differing emphases were observed for mental health and learning disability services. These findings should be used to inform the teaching and evaluation of professionalism, especially for staff pursuing mental health service careers.

Callous-Unemotional Traits are Associated With Child-to-Parent Aggression.

This study examined the relations between callous-unemotional traits and perpetration of aggression toward parents in two separate studies, while also considering motivation for aggression and parenting styles experienced among young people. Study 1 involved 60 parents of children aged between 11 and 17 years old. The online study found high callous-unemotional traits, as reported by parents, to be associated with aggression toward both parents. Both types of motivation (proactive and reactive, as reported by parents) were associated with aggression toward parents. Study 2 involved 42 youths from an alternative education sample (between 11 and 16 years old). Youths with higher self-reported callous-unemotional traits reported more aggression toward both parents. Both studies, which had different reporters and different samples, showed youths with higher callous-unemotional traits were more aggressive toward their parents. In discussing the results, we note the importance of including callous-unemotional traits in future research on parent-directed aggression and in studies on domestic violence more broadly.

Predictive validity of A-level grades and teacher-predicted grades in UK medical school applicants: a retrospective analysis of administrative data in a time of COVID-19.

OBJECTIVES: To compare in UK medical students the predictive validity of attained A-level grades and teacher-predicted A levels for undergraduate and postgraduate outcomes. Teacher-predicted A-level grades are a plausible proxy for the teacher-estimated grades that replaced UK examinations in 2020 as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic. The study also models the likely future consequences for UK medical schools of replacing public A-level examination grades with teacher-predicted grades. DESIGN: Longitudinal observational study using UK Medical Education Database data. SETTING: UK medical education and training. PARTICIPANTS: Dataset 1: 81 202 medical school applicants in 2010-2018 with predicted and attained A-level grades. Dataset 2: 22 150 18-year-old medical school applicants in 2010-2014 with predicted and attained A-level grades, of whom 12 600 had medical school assessment outcomes and 1340 had postgraduate outcomes available. OUTCOME MEASURES: Undergraduate and postgraduate medical examination results in relation to attained and teacher-predicted A-level results. RESULTS: Dataset 1: teacher-predicted grades were accurate for 48.8% of A levels, overpredicted in 44.7% of cases and underpredicted in 6.5% of cases. Dataset 2: undergraduate and postgraduate outcomes correlated significantly better with attained than with teacher-predicted A-level grades. Modelling suggests that using teacher-estimated grades instead of attained grades will mean that 2020 entrants are more likely to underattain compared with previous years, 13% more gaining the equivalent of the lowest performance decile and 16% fewer reaching the equivalent of the current top decile, with knock-on effects for postgraduate training. CONCLUSIONS: The replacement of attained A-level examination grades with teacher-estimated grades as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic may result in 2020 medical school entrants having somewhat lower academic performance compared with previous years. Medical schools may need to consider additional teaching for entrants who are struggling or who might need extra support for missed aspects of A-level teaching.

Understanding gateway to medicine programmes.

BACKGROUND: Supporting underrepresented groups in pursuing, applying and matriculating into medical education is a key issue in the field. In the United Kingdom, Gateway to Medicine programmes were created as a specific form of entry to medical education, to support diversification goals. Whilst well-established, how these programmes are broadly designed and implemented, and how their functioning links to conceptual views of diversity, is not well described in the literature. METHODS: This article explores relevant diversity-related literature, including a specific review of all Gateway programmes. FINDINGS: Key facets of diversity-related work in medicine, including the distinction between 'widening participation' and 'widening access' are discussed. These distinctions frame the presentation of Gateway years; their selection process, structure and function are described. The purpose of these years is then discussed, with the lens of different discourses around diversity in medicine, to provide theoretical and practical considerations. Recommendations for how faculty can better explore diversity-related issues are also provided. CONCLUSION: Gateway programmes may be effective, to some extent, in widening access to medical education, but require considerable resourcing to operate. Though heterogenous in nature, these programmes share common elements. However, discourses around the goals and purpose of this diversification vary based on individuals and institutions. These varied perspectives, as well as the societal and historical implications of diversity-related work, are important for all clinical educators to understand with depth, and address directly, in order to reduce inequalities both within medical education and society at large.

Are efforts to recruit to psychiatry closing the stable door after the horse has bolted? Knowledge and attitudes towards a career in psychiatry amongst secondary (high) school students: a UK-based cross-sectional survey.

BACKGROUND: Internationally there is a shortage of psychiatrists, whilst clinical psychology training is generally oversubscribed. School students interested in psychological health may not be aware of the possibility of studying medicine before specialising in psychiatry. This has implications for the mental health workforce. AIMS: To evaluate the knowledge and attitudes relating to a potential career in psychiatry amongst secondary (high) school students. METHOD: A cross-sectional survey evaluated attitudes and knowledge relating to psychiatry and clinical psychology, targeting students from five schools who were studying chemistry, biology and/or psychology at an advanced level. RESULTS: 186 students completed the survey (response rate 41%). Knowledge was generally poor with only 57% of respondents knowing that psychiatrists had medical degrees, and most participants substantially underestimating the salaries of consultant psychiatrists. Attitudinal response patterns were explained by two underlying factors, relating to generally negative attitudes towards psychiatry and positive attitudes towards the effectiveness of psychiatric treatments. Females and those studying psychology reported more positive attitudes towards psychiatry. Those studying chemistry reported more negative attitudes towards the effectiveness of mental health treatment. CONCLUSIONS: Studying psychology predicted positive attitudes towards psychiatry. Such students could be targeted by recruitment campaigns, which emphasise factual information about the specialty.