Ultraviolet emissions from the magnetic footprints of Io, Ganymede and Europa on Jupiter.

Io leaves a magnetic footprint on Jupiter's upper atmosphere that appears as a spot of ultraviolet emission that remains fixed underneath Io as Jupiter rotates. The specific physical mechanisms responsible for generating those emissions are not well understood, but in general the spot seems to arise because of an electromagnetic interaction between Jupiter's magnetic field and the plasma surrounding Io, driving currents of around 1 million amperes down through Jupiter's ionosphere. The other galilean satellites may also leave footprints, and the presence or absence of such footprints should illuminate the underlying physical mechanism by revealing the strengths of the currents linking the satellites to Jupiter. Here we report persistent, faint, far-ultraviolet emission from the jovian footprints of Ganymede and Europa. We also show that Io's magnetic footprint extends well beyond the immediate vicinity of Io's flux-tube interaction with Jupiter, and much farther than predicted theoretically; the emission persists for several hours downstream. We infer from these data that Ganymede and Europa have persistent interactions with Jupiter's magnetic field despite their thin atmospheres.

Cyclization of backbone-substituted peptides catalyzed by the thioesterase domain from the tyrocidine nonribosomal peptide synthetase.

The excised C-terminal thioesterase (TE) domain from the multidomain tyrocidine nonribosomal peptide synthetase (NRPS) was recently shown to catalyze head-to-tail cyclization of a decapeptide thioester to form the cyclic decapeptide antibiotic tyrocidine A [Trauger, J. W., Kohli, R. M., Mootz, H. D., Marahiel, M. A., and Walsh, C. T. (2000) Nature 407, 215-218]. The peptide thioester substrate was a mimic of the TE domain's natural, synthetase-bound substrate. We report here the synthesis of modified peptide thioester substrates in which parts of the peptide backbone are altered either by the replacement of three amino acid blocks with a flexible spacer or by replacement of individual amide bonds with ester bonds. Rates of TE domain catalyzed cyclization were determined for these substrates and compared with that of the wild-type substrate, revealing that some parts of the peptide backbone are important for cyclization, while other parts can be modified without significantly affecting the cyclization rate. We also report the synthesis of a modified substrate in which the N-terminal amino group of the wild-type substrate, which is the nucleophile in the cyclization reaction, is replaced with a hydroxyl group and show that this compound is cyclized by the TE domain to form a macrolactone at a rate comparable to that of the wild-type substrate. These results demonstrate that the TE domain from the tyrocidine NRPS can catalyze cyclization of depsipeptides and other backbone-substituted peptides and suggest that during the cyclization reaction the peptide substrate is preorganized for cyclization in the enzyme active site in part by intramolecular backbone hydrogen bonds analogous to those in the product tyrocidine A.

Generality of peptide cyclization catalyzed by isolated thioesterase domains of nonribosomal peptide synthetases.

The C-terminal thioesterase (TE) domains from nonribosomal peptide synthetases (NRPSs) catalyze the final step in the biosynthesis of diverse biologically active molecules. In many systems, the thioesterase domain is involved in macrocyclization of a linear precursor presented as an acyl-S-enzyme intermediate. The excised thioesterase domain from the tyrocidine NRPS has been shown to catalyze the cyclization of a peptide thioester substrate which mimics its natural acyl-S-enzyme substrate. In this work we explore the generality of cyclization catalyzed by isolated TE domains. Using synthetic peptide thioester substrates from 6 to 14 residues in length, we show that the excised TE domain from the tyrocidine NRPS can be used to generate an array of sizes of cyclic peptides with comparable kinetic efficiency. We also studied the excised TE domains from the NRPSs which biosynthesize the symmetric cyclic decapeptide gramicidin S and the cyclic lipoheptapeptide surfactin A. Both TE domains exhibit expected cyclization activity: the TE domain from the gramicidin S NRPS catalyzes head-to-tail cyclization of a decapeptide thioester to form gramicidin S, and the TE domain from the surfactin NRPS catalyzes stereospecific cyclization to form a macrolactone analogue of surfactin. With an eye toward generating libraries of cyclic molecules by TE catalysis, we report the solid-phase synthesis and TE-mediated cyclization of a small pool of linear peptide thioesters. These studies provide evidence for the general utility of TE catalysis as a means to synthesize a wide range of macrocyclic compounds.

Aminoacyl-SNACs as small-molecule substrates for the condensation domains of nonribosomal peptide synthetases.

BACKGROUND: Nonribosomal peptide synthetases (NRPSs) are large multidomain proteins that catalyze the formation of a wide range of biologically active natural products. These megasynthetases contain condensation (C) domains that catalyze peptide bond formation and chain elongation. The natural substrates for C domains are biosynthetic intermediates that are covalently tethered to thiolation (T) domains within the synthetase by thioester linkages. Characterizing C domain substrate specificity is important for the engineered biosynthesis of new compounds. RESULTS: We synthesized a series of aminoacyl-N-acetylcysteamine thioesters (aminoacyl-SNACs) and show that they are small-molecule substrates for NRPS C domains. Comparison of rates of peptide bond formation catalyzed by the C domain from enterobactin synthetase with various aminoacyl-SNACs as downstream (acceptor) substrates revealed high selectivity for the natural substrate analog L-Ser-SNAC. Comparing L- and D-Phe-SNACs as upstream (donor) substrates for the first C domain from tyrocidine synthetase revealed clear D- versus L-selectivity. CONCLUSIONS: Aminoacyl-SNACs are substrates for NRPS C domains and are useful for characterizing the substrate specificity of C domain-catalyzed peptide bond formation.

Peptide cyclization catalysed by the thioesterase domain of tyrocidine synthetase.

In the biosynthesis of many macrocyclic natural products by multidomain megasynthases, a carboxy-terminal thioesterase (TE) domain is involved in cyclization and product release; however, it has not been determined whether TE domains can catalyse macrocyclization (and elongation in the case of symmetric cyclic peptides) independently of upstream domains. The inability to decouple the TE cyclization step from earlier chain assembly steps has precluded determination of TE substrate specificity, which is important for the engineered biosynthesis of new compounds. Here we report that the excised TE domain from tyrocidine synthetase efficiently catalyses cyclization of a decapeptide-thioester to form the antibiotic tyrocidine A, and can catalyse pentapeptide-thioester dimerization followed by cyclization to form the antibiotic gramicidin S. By systematically varying the decapeptide-thioester substrate and comparing cyclization rates, we also show that only two residues (one near each end of the decapeptide) are critical for cyclization. This specificity profile indicates that the tyrocidine synthetase TE, and by analogy many other TE domains, will be able to cyclize and release a broad range of new substrates and products produced by engineered enzymatic assembly lines.

Heterologous expression in Escherichia coli of the first module of the nonribosomal peptide synthetase for chloroeremomycin, a vancomycin-type glycopeptide antibiotic.

The gene cluster from Amycolotopsis orientalis responsible for biosynthesis of the vancomycin-type glycopeptide antibiotic chloroeremomycin was recently sequenced, indicating that this antibiotic derives from a seven-residue peptide synthesized by a three-subunit (CepA, CepB, and CepC) modular nonribosomal peptide synthetase. Expression of all or parts of the peptide synthetase in Escherichia coli would facilitate biochemical characterization of its substrate specificity, an important step toward the development of more potent glycopeptides by combinatorial biosynthesis. To determine whether CepA, a three-module 3,158-residue peptide synthetase expected to assemble the first three residues of the heptapeptide precursor, could be heterologously expressed in E. coli and converted to active, holo form by posttranslational priming with a phosphopantetheinyltransferase, we expressed two CepA fragments (CepA1-575 and CepA1-1596) as well as full-length CepA (CepA1-3158). All three constructs were expressed in soluble form. We find that the CepA1-575 fragment, containing adenylation and peptidyl carrier protein domains (A1-PCP1), specifically adenylates l-leucine and d-leucine in a 6:1 ratio, and it can be converted to holo form by the phosphopantetheinyltransferase Sfp; also, we find that holo-CepA1-575 can be covalently aminoacylated with l-leucine on the peptidyl carrier protein 1 domain. However, no amino acid-dependent adenylation or aminoacylation activity was detected for the larger CepA constructs with l-leucine or other expected amino acid substrates, suggesting severe folding problems in the multidomain proteins.

Clinical comparison of the midvastus and medial parapatellar surgical approaches.

The medial parapatellar approach and the midvastus approach are the two most commonly used surgical approaches in total knee replacement. This study compared surgical and clinical parameters associated with both surgical approaches in primary total knee replacement. One hundred nine patients who underwent bilateral primary total knee replacements had a medial parapatellar approach to one knee and a midvastus approach to the opposite knee. The prosthetic design and physical therapy were identical in all 109 patients. The patients and physical therapists were blinded to the type of approach used on each knee. The comparison included the surgical parameters of difficulty of exposure, surgical time, incidence of lateral retinacular release, and total blood loss. The clinical parameters of pain, range of motion, ability to perform a straight leg raise, and complications were compared at 8 days, 6 weeks and 6 months. The comparison between the two surgical approaches showed a statistically significant difference in four parameters, all of which favored the midvastus approach. The patients who had the midvastus approach required fewer lateral retinacular releases, had less pain at 8 days, had less pain at 6 weeks, and had a higher incidence of ability to straight leg raise at 8 days. There was no statistical difference between the two surgical approaches in all other surgical and clinical parameters. There was no increased difficulty of exposure using the midvastus approach when compared with the medial parapatellar approach even in patients with severe varus or valgus deformities. Notably, all clinical parameters were equal at 6 months. From a clinical standpoint, the midvastus approach had an advantage over the medial parapatellar approach because the patients had significantly less pain and had the ability to straight leg raise at 8 days. Because the managed care environment dictates a shorter hospital stay, patients who have the midvastus surgical approach have less pain and earlier control of the operative leg, and may be discharged from the hospital earlier. However, the clinical results at 6 months based on the patient's pain relief, range of motion, and ability to straight legraise were identical between the two surgical approaches.

Anti-repression of RNA polymerase II transcription by pyrrole-imidazole polyamides.

Pyrrole-imidazole polyamides are ligands that bind in the minor groove of DNA with high affinity and sequence selectivity. Molecules of this class have been shown to disrupt specific transcription factor-DNA interactions and to inhibit basal and activated transcription from various RNA polymerase II and III promoters. A set of eight-ring hairpin-motif pyrrole-imidazole polyamides has been designed to bind within the binding site for the human cytomegalovirus (CMV) UL122 immediate early protein 2 (IE86). IE86 represses transcription of the CMV major immediate early promoter (MIEP) through its cognate cis recognition sequence (crs) located between the TATA box and the transcription initiation site. The designed polyamides bind to their target DNA sequence with nanomolar affinities and with a high degree of sequence selectivity. The polyamides effectively block binding of IE86 protein to the crs in DNase I footprinting experiments. A mismatch polyamide, containing a single imidazole to pyrrole substitution, and also a polyamide binding to a site located 14 base pairs upstream of the repressor binding site, do not prevent IE86 binding to the crs. IE86-mediated transcriptional repression in vitro is relieved by a match polyamide but not by a mismatch polyamide. Transcription from a DNA template harboring a mutation in the crs is not affected either by IE86 protein or by the match polyamides. These results demonstrate that this new class of small molecules, the pyrrole-imidazole polyamides, are not only effective inhibitors of basal and activated transcription, but also can be used to activate transcription by blocking the DNA-binding activity of a repressor protein.

Inhibition of Ets-1 DNA binding and ternary complex formation between Ets-1, NF-kappaB, and DNA by a designed DNA-binding ligand.

Sequence-specific pyrrole-imidazole polyamides can be designed to interfere with transcription factor binding and to regulate gene expression, both in vitro and in living cells. Polyamides bound adjacent to the recognition sites for TBP, Ets-1, and LEF-1 in the human immunodeficiency virus, type 1 (HIV-1), long terminal repeat inhibited transcription in cell-free assays and viral replication in human peripheral blood lymphocytes. The DNA binding activity of the transcription factor Ets-1 is specifically inhibited by a polyamide bound in the minor groove. Ets-1 is a member of the winged-helix-turn-helix family of transcription factors and binds DNA through a recognition helix bound in the major groove with additional phosphate contacts on either side of this major groove interaction. The inhibitory polyamide possibly interferes with phosphate contacts made by Ets-1, by occupying the adjacent minor groove. Full-length Ets-1 binds the HIV-1 enhancer through cooperative interactions with the p50 subunit of NF-kappaB, and the Ets-inhibitory polyamide also blocks formation of ternary Ets-1. NF-kappaB.DNA complexes on the HIV-1 enhancer. A polyamide bound adjacent to the recognition site for NF-kappaB also inhibits NF-kappaB binding and ternary complex formation. These results broaden the application range of minor groove-binding polyamides and demonstrate that these DNA ligands are powerful inhibitors of DNA-binding proteins that predominantly use major groove contacts and of cooperative protein-DNA ternary complexes.

Minor groove DNA-protein contacts upstream of a tRNA gene detected with a synthetic DNA binding ligand.

Transcription factor IIIB (TFIIIB) is composed of the TATA box binding protein (TBP) and class III gene-specific TBP-associated factors (TAFs). TFIIIB is brought to a site centered approximately 35 bp upstream from the transcription start site of tRNA genes via protein-protein interactions with the intragenic promoter-recognition factor TFIIIC. Since TBP interacts with TATA elements through the minor groove of DNA, we asked whether TFIIIB interacts with DNA in the minor groove. Polyamides containing pyrrole (Py) and imidazole (Im) amino acids are synthetic DNA ligands that bind to predetermined sequences in the minor groove of double helical DNA. These small molecules have been shown to interfere with protein-DNA interactions in the minor groove. A series of DNA constructs was generated in which the binding site for a Py-Im polyamide was placed at various distances upstream from a tRNA gene transcription start site. We find that a match polyamide will effectively inhibit tRNA gene transcription when its binding site is located within 33 bp of the transcription start site of the Xenopus TyrD tRNA gene. Moreover, in the presence of polyamide, RNA polymerase III is redirected to a new transcription initiation site located approximately one DNA helical turn downstream from the native start site. Our results suggest that a subunit of TFIIIB, possibly TBP, makes an essential minor groove DNA contact centered approximately 30 bp upstream from the tRNA gene.

Laboratory studies of alkali metal filter deposition, ultraviolet transmission, and visible blocking.

Far-ultraviolet alkali metal or Wood's filters have been produced and tested supporting the production of a flight filter for the Wide Field Planetary Camera 2 on the Hubble Space Telescope. Sodium layers 0.5-1-microm thick transmit up to 40% in the ultraviolet while efficiently blocking visible wavelengths. The prevention of visible pinholes is assisted by a clean, sleek-free surface and a cooled substrate during deposition. The coatings are stabilized efficiently by a bismuth overcoating whose transmission spectrum is presented. We also report for the first time, to our knowledge, the first demonstrated long-wavelength cutoff from a lithium filter, with a shorter cutoff wavelength than sodium and potentially higher stability for astronomical imaging.

Inhibition of RNA polymerase II transcription in human cells by synthetic DNA-binding ligands.

Sequence-specific DNA-binding small molecules that can permeate human cells potentially could regulate transcription of specific genes. Multiple cellular DNA-binding transcription factors are required by HIV type 1 for RNA synthesis. Two pyrrole-imidazole polyamides were designed to bind DNA sequences immediately adjacent to binding sites for the transcription factors Ets-1, lymphoid-enhancer binding factor 1, and TATA-box binding protein. These synthetic ligands specifically inhibit DNA-binding of each transcription factor and HIV type 1 transcription in cell-free assays. When used in combination, the polyamides inhibit virus replication by >99% in isolated human peripheral blood lymphocytes, with no detectable cell toxicity. The ability of small molecules to target predetermined DNA sequences located within RNA polymerase II promoters suggests a general approach for regulation of gene expression, as well as a mechanism for the inhibition of viral replication.

Regulation of gene expression by small molecules.

Small molecules that target specific DNA sequences have the potential to control gene expression. Ligands designed for therapeutic application must bind any predetermined DNA sequence with high affinity and permeate living cells. Synthetic polyamides containing N-methylimidazole and N-methylpyrrole amino acids have an affinity and specificity for DNA comparable to naturally occurring DNA-binding proteins. We report here that an eight-ring polyamide targeted to a specific region of the transcription factor TFIIIA binding site interferes with 5S RNA gene expression in Xenopus kidney cells. Our results indicate that pyrrole-imidazole polyamides are cell-permeable and can inhibit the transcription of specific genes.

Importance of minor groove binding zinc fingers within the transcription factor IIIA-DNA complex.

The gene-specific transcription factor IIIA (TFIIIA) binds to the internal promoter element of the 5 S rRNA gene through nine zinc fingers which make specific DNA contacts. Seven of the nine TFIIIA zinc fingers participate in major groove DNA contacts while two fingers, 4 and 6, have been proposed to bind in or across the minor groove. Pyrrole-imidazole polyamides are minor groove binding ligands that recognize predetermined DNA sequences with affinity and specificity comparable to natural DNA-binding proteins. We have examined the DNA binding activity of nine finger TFIIIA and shorter recombinant analogs in the presence of polyamides that bind six base-pair sequences (Kd = 0.03 to 1.7 nM) in the minor groove of the binding site for zinc finger 4. DNase I footprint titrations demonstrate that the polyamides and a recombinant protein containing the three amino-terminal zinc fingers of TFIIIA (zf1-3) co-occupy the TFIIIA binding site, in agreement with the known location of zf1-3 in the major groove. In contrast, the polyamides block the specific interaction of TFIIIA or zf1-4 with the 5 S RNA gene, supporting a model for minor groove occupancy by zinc finger 4. Minor groove binding polyamides targeted to specific DNA sequences may provide a novel chemical approach to probing multidomain protein-DNA interactions.

Recognition of DNA by designed ligands at subnanomolar concentrations.

Small molecules that specifically bind with high affinity to any predetermined DNA sequence in the human genome would be useful tools in molecular biology and potentially in human medicine. Simple rules have been developed to control rationally the sequence specificity of minor-groove-binding polyamides containing N-methylimidazole and N-methylpyrrole amino acids. Two eight-ring pyrrole-imidazole polyamides differing in sequence by a single amino acid bind specifically to respective six-base-pair target sites which differ in sequence by a single base pair. Binding is observed at subnanomolar concentrations of ligand. The replacement of a single nitrogen atom with a C-H regulates affinity and specificity by two orders of magnitude. The broad range of sequences that can be specifically targeted with pyrrole-imidazole polyamides, coupled with an efficient solid-phase synthesis methodology, identify a powerful class of small molecules for sequence-specific recognition of double-helical DNA.

Extended hairpin polyamide motif for sequence-specific recognition in the minor groove of DNA.

BACKGROUND: Three-ring polyamides containing N-methylimidazole and N-methylpyrrole amino acids bind sequence-specifically to double-helical DNA by forming side-by-side complexes in the minor groove. Simple pairing rules relate the amino-acid sequence of a pyrrole-imidazole polyamide to its expected DNA target site, and polyamides that target a wide variety of DNA sequences have been synthesized. We have shown previously that two three-ring subunits could be linked together by an aliphatic amino acid, increasing the binding affinity of the polyamide and, in some cases, increasing the length of the target sequence. We set out to determine whether different types of linkers could be used in a single molecule to generate a nine-ring polyamide molecule that would bind to specific DNA sequences. RESULTS: A nine-ring pyrrole-imidazole polyamide, containing two different amino acid linkers, beta-alanine and gamma-aminobutyric acid, has been synthesized and shown to specifically bind a designated nine-base-pair target site at subnanomolar concentration in a novel extended hairpin conformation. CONCLUSIONS: The amino acids gamma-aminobutyric acid and beta-alanine optimally link three-ring pyrrole-imidazole subunits in 'hairpin' and 'extended' conformations, respectively. Both aliphatic amino acids can be combined to generate a nine-ring polyamide that specifically recognizes a nine-base-pair target site with very high affinity.

HST far-ultraviolet imaging of Jupiter during the impacts of comet Shoemaker-Levy 9.

Hubble Space Telescope far-ultraviolet images of Jupiter during the Shoemaker-Levy 9 impacts show the impact regions darkening over the 2 to 3 hours after the impact, becoming darker and more extended than at longer wavelengths, which indicates that ultraviolet-absorbing gases or aerosols are more extended, more absorbing, and at higher altitudes than the absorbers of visible light. Transient auroral emissions were observed near the magnetic conjugate point of the K impact site just after that impact. The global auroral activity was fainter than average during the impacts, and a variable auroral emission feature was observed inside the southern auroral oval preceding the impacts of fragments Q1 and Q2.

Auroral signature of comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 in the jovian magnetosphere.

The electrodynamic interaction of the dust and gas comae of comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 with the jovian magnetosphere was unique and different from the atmospheric effects. Early theoretical predictions of auroral-type processes on the comet magnetic field line and advanced modeling of the time-varying morphology of these lines allowed dedicated observations with the Hubble Space Telescope Wide Field Planetary Camera 2 and resulted in the detection of a bright auroral spot. In that respect, this observation of the surface signature of an externally triggered auroral process can be considered as a "magnetospheric active experiment" on Jupiter.