[Infant mortality and births in the 19th and early 20th centuries]. / Zuigelingensterfte en geboorten in de 19e en begin 20e eeuw.

During the 19th century infant mortality was very high in the Netherlands, particularly in the provinces of South Holland and Zeeland (up to 300 per 1000 live births and more), and also in parts of North Brabant and Limburg. In the northern provinces (Drenthe, Groningen and Friesland) mortality was lower. Where breast-feeding was infrequently given (in rural areas of South Holland, Zeeland and from the 1850s also in North Brabant), infant mortality was relatively high. In the northern provinces many mothers breast-fed their infants. The fertility rate of married women was high, especially in those parts of the country where breast-feeding was infrequent. From 1875-1880 fertility rate and infant mortality decreased: the so-called demographic transition. Improved social conditions and employment opportunities played an important role in this as did the vertical social mobility: limitation of the size of families gave children opportunities to climb the social ladder.

[Induced abortion in The Netherlands in the twentieth century; from taboo to revolutionary change]. / Abortus provocatus in Nederland in de 20e eeuw: van stilzwijgen naar revolutionaire verandering.

Between 1890 and 1945 the number of induced (criminal) abortions increased in Amsterdam; from 1945 up until the 1960s the number decreased slightly. In 1965 the number of induced abortions that took place in Amsterdam was estimated at more than 2000. Complications were frequent and included infections, septicaemia, damage caused by injected soap and sometimes air embolism. Women in Amsterdam often used primitive methods of contraception, but effective methods, such as condoms and diaphragms, were also used to some degree. Oral contraception was introduced in The Netherlands in 1962. Its use increased rapidly and consequently many doctors were confronted with problems surrounding contraception, including failures and abortion requests. After a television programme on abortion in 1967, requests for abortion surged. Hospitals set up multidisciplinary abortion committees to assess the requests, but soon it became evident that the women themselves were better able to judge whether they should undergo the procedure. Abortion clinics were established outside hospitals. Support from the feminist movement played a role after changes were already underway. The nationwide number of abortions increased to 21,000 in 1972 and to about 25,000 in the 1990s. The number remained stable, even among teenagers, because caregivers placed a great deal of emphasis on adequate contraception.

[Forty years of discussion about perinatal mortality in the Netherlands]. / Veertig jaar discussie over perinatale sterfte in Nederland.

In the recently published Peristat study, in which perinatal mortality in the countries of the European Union is compared, the figures for The Netherlands are higher than in the other countries. These figures are based partly on civil registration data. In the countries where these civil registration data were compared with clinical records, i.e. The Netherlands, Northern Ireland and Greece, a considerable underregistration was demonstrated. In The Netherlands, prenatal screening for congenital anomalies is less prevalent than in some other European countries and paediatricians are more reluctant to resuscitate seriously immature infants. This may have some influence on perinatal mortality figures, but a more fundamental question is: are the figures from various countries, based on national civil registration and a large number of divergent clinical registration systems, comparable? This question has not been answered satisfactorily.

[Teenage pregnancy, a worldwide problem]. / Tienerzwangerschappen, een mondiaal probleem.

The incidence of adolescent pregnancy is highest in Sub Saharan Africa (143 per 1,000 girls aged between 15-19 years). In Europe, it is well over 20 per 1,000. In the Netherlands, the percentage of teenage pregnancies ending in abortion is high (abortion ratio 61%), but the number of abortions among teenagers is low (abortion rate 8.6 per 1,000). Differences in the number of teenage pregnancies between industrialized countries are mainly caused by the availability of effective contraception for adolescents and not by differences in sexual behaviour. The main obstetric complication is preterm birth, especially if the interval between menarche and conception is short. Labour in teenagers is generally easier. Long-term socio-economic consequences for mother and child are great, in both developing and developed countries. There is an urgent need for programmes aimed at improving contraception in adolescents, especially in developing countries.

[Chlorosis, the lost disease of languid young women]. / Chlorose, een verdwenen ziekte van kwijnende jonge meisjes.

Chlorosis or 'green sickness' was frequently seen in languid girls and young women in the 19th century but disappeared completely in the first part of the 20th century. The clinical picture comprised menstrual disorders such as ameonrrhoea, pallor and many vague symptoms including apathy and hypochondria. At a later stage anaemia and iron deficiency became prominent characteristics. The skin was reported to take on a greenish hue, but this is disputable. Related diseases were hysteria and anorexia. In the middle of the 19th century hydrotherapy was treatment of choice, and later on iron therapy came to the fore. In 1898 Catharine van Tussenbroek, the first female Dutch gynaecologist, pointed to the social factors at the root of the disease: the lack of perspective for young girls in society at that time. The disappearance of the disease can be partially attributed to improved diagnostics but more so to changes in the social position of women around the turn of the century.

Care for adolescent pregnancy and childbirth.

The rise in adolescent pregnancy in the 20th century has been influenced by declining age at menarche, increased schooling, delay of marriage, inadequate contraception and poverty. The main problems are preterm labor, hypertensive disease, anemia, more severe forms of malaria, obstructed labor in very young girls in some regions, poor maternal nutrition and poor breastfeeding. In many regions HIV infection is an important problem. The infants of adolescent mothers are more prone to low birth weight and increased neonatal mortality and morbidity. Antenatal care is often inadequate. The most important problem is the increased incidence of preterm labor and delivery, the youngest age groups running the highest risk. Technically, care of adolescents during labor need not differ from care of older women; most adolescents are not at increased risk during labor, although, they are more in need of empathic support. Generally, care of pregnant adolescents should be adjusted to their specific needs.

[Consequences of diethylstilbestrol during pregnancy; 50 years later still a significant problem]. / Gevolgen van diëthylstilbestrol in de zwangerschap: na 50 jaar nog steeds een actueel probleem.

Since the 1940s, diethylstilbestrol (DES) has been administered to about three million pregnant women in the United States and in the Netherlands, between 1947 and 1975, to about 220,000. The most important consequences described are: for DES mothers an increased risk of mammary carcinomas and for DES daughters a 1 in 1000 chance of clear cell adenocarcinoma (CCAC) as well as an increased risk of (pre)malignant abnormalities of the stratified epithelium in the vagina and cervix. In addition to this, DES daughters frequently have developmental disorders of the cervix and corpus uteri. In connection with this fertilisation disorders have been described as well as unfavourable outcomes of pregnancy: more ectopic pregnancies, abortion and premature birth. DES sons exhibit an increased frequency of several benign abnormalities of the genitalia. The DES problem continues to be an important issue. The entire cohort of DES mothers is in the age group with a high risk of mammary carcinoma. The youngest DES daughters will be of childbearing age for at least another 15 years; the risk of ectopic pregnancies and pre-term labour is increased. The oldest DES daughters are now reaching postmenopausal age. The incidence of CCAC of the vagina and cervix in the population is bimodal, with a second peak at older age. It is still unknown if at this age DES daughters will have an increased incidence of these malignancies. From animal experiments it becomes clear that DES administration to pregnant mice results in an increased incidence of genital tumours not only in the second generation but also in the third. This has yet to be investigated in humans and deserves special attention. The legally imposed destruction of patient files after a period of ten years is a serious threat to patient care and scientific investigation, notably in obstetrics and child medicine.

[High vacuum extraction: justifiably obsolete in view of the risks to the infant]. / De hoge vacuümextractie: terecht obsoleet gezien de risico's voor het kind.

The author was asked to provide an expert assessment of the case histories of 28 patients delivered by vacuum extraction. At the start of the extraction the foetal head level was at station 0 or above in 25 of the patients. In 12 cases the duration of extraction exceeded 14 min and in 7 of the cases it exceeded 19 minutes with a maximum of 45 minutes. Nine of the infants died, 11 suffered cerebral damage, 4 had brachial plexus injury and 1 had both cerebral damage and plexus injury. In 17 cases a causal relation between the unfavourable outcome and the vacuum extraction seemed plausible. During the past 40 years several studies of patients who have undergone high pelvic vacuum extractions have been published; cerebral damage of the infants often occurred. The risk of shoulder dystocia resulting in brachial plexus injury is considerably increased in case of a large infant and mid pelvic or high pelvic delivery. In the paediatric literature a number of authors describe cerebral lesions caused by high pelvic vacuum extraction. High pelvic vacuum extraction is still occasionally practiced in the Netherlands; it is a hazardous technique and should be replaced by caesarean section.

Effects of antenatal corticosteroid administration on mortality and long-term morbidity in early preterm, growth-restricted infants.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the effect of antenatal corticosteroids on mortality, morbidity, and disability or handicap rate in early preterm, growth-restricted infants. METHODS: This case-control study in two tertiary care centers included all live-born singleton infants with growth-restriction due to placental insufficiency, who were delivered by cesarean because of cardiotocographic signs of fetal distress before the beginning of labor at a gestational age of 26-32 weeks during the years 1984-1991. Infants who had been treated antenatally with corticosteroids more than 24 hours and less than 7 days before birth were matched by birth weight, sex, and year of birth with infants whose mothers had been admitted more than 24 hours before delivery but were not treated antenatally with steroids. The main outcome measure was survival without disability or handicap at 2 years corrected age. A sample of 60 case-control pairs would give 81% power to demonstrate 50% increase of this outcome [odds ratio (OR) 3.0] by corticosteroid treatment. Behavior and physical growth were evaluated at school age by questionnaire. RESULTS: The study group and control group consisted of 62 infants each. Survival without disability or handicap at 2 years' corrected age was more frequent in the corticosteroid group [OR 3.2, confidence interval (CI) 1.1, 11.2]. In the long-term follow-up at school age there was a statistically significant negative effect on physical growth (OR 5.1, CI 1.4, 23.8), but no differences in behavior were detected. CONCLUSION: Benefits from antenatal corticosteroids for early preterm, growth-restricted infants appear to outweigh possible adverse effects.

Long-term follow-up in patients with a history of (H)ELLP syndrome.

OBJECTIVE: To provide long-term follow-up data on women with a history of hemolysis, elevated liver enzymes, and low platelets [(H)ELLP] syndrome regarding the risk of recurrence in subsequent pregnancies and disease in later life. METHODS: All women admitted to the Academic Medical Centre between January 1984 and January 1996 with (H)ELLP syndrome and a living singleton fetus in utero were included. Women with known preexisting diseases were excluded. The (H)ELLP syndrome was defined as elevated liver enzymes (serum aspartate aminotransferase or serum alanine aminotransferase >or= 50 U/L) and low platelet count (< 100 x 10(9)/L). Those patients with hemolysis (LDH >or= 600 U/L) were classified as HELLP, the remaining ones were classified as ELLP. The participants were asked to fill out a questionnaire regarding their general health and their own obstetric and medical history and that of their first-and second-degree relatives. RESULTS: One hundred sixteen (94%) of 123 women responded; 4 women had died. The median age of the group was 36.0 years at completion of the questionnaire; the median interval after the index pregnancy was 5.7 years (3-12.9). The incidence of hypertension requiring medical treatment was three times higher than in a reference population of Dutch women between 20 and 40 years old. The need for psychological support was frequent. Thirty-nine patients (34%) refrained from further pregnancies. Twenty-nine percent of the first subsequent pregnancies were complicated by gestational hypertension (GH), but only 2% had (H)ELLP syndrome. Birth weight was, on average, 1385 g higher and gestational age at delivery 5 weeks later in the first subsequent pregnancy irrespective of a recurrence of GH. A family history of cardiovascular disease or preeclampsia was common in the total group; however, this did not influence the recurrence rate. Multiparity, gestational age at delivery <30 weeks, and birth weight <1000 g in the index pregnancy increased the risk of recurrence of GH in the first subsequent pregnancy significantly. CONCLUSIONS: (H)ELLP syndrome is a severe complication of pregnancy that has not only short-term but also long-term sequelae.

The hour of birth: comparisons of circadian pattern between women cared for by midwives and obstetricians.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the difference, if any, between midwives' care and obstetricians' care in the circadian pattern of the hour of birth in spontaneous labour and delivery. DESIGN: A descriptive study comparing the circadian pattern of the hour of birth between women cared for by a midwife or an obstetrician. SETTING: Data were derived from the Perinatal Database of the Netherlands (LVR), comprising 83% of all births under midwives' care and 75% of all births under obstetricians' care. SUBJECTS: 57,871 women receiving midwives' care and 31,999 women receiving obstetricians' care with spontaneous labour and spontaneous delivery. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Differences in the circadian rhythms between women receiving midwives' care and obstetricians' care. FINDINGS: There was a difference in the circadian pattern of the hour of birth between midwives' and obstetricians' care. Peak times differed 5.43 hours (CI 4.23-7.03) for primiparous and 3.34 hours (CI 3.00-4.08) for multiparous women between the midwives' group and the obstetricians' group. CONCLUSION: This study demonstrates a remarkable difference in circadian pattern of the hour of birth between midwives' care and obstetricians' care. In obstetricians' care the duration of normal labour appears to be prolonged, presumably by an increased level of stress. In normal birth the care of midwives is preferable.

Maternal outcome following temporizing management of the (H)ELLP syndrome.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of the study was to describe the clinical progress and maternal outcome of the (H)ELLP syndrome following temporizing management. METHODS: All women (n = 127) admitted in the Academic Medical Center in Amsterdam between 1984 and 1996 with (H)ELLP syndrome and a live fetus in utero were included. The patients were treated by temporizing management, including the use of antihypertensives and magnesium sulfate. The predominant indication for terminating pregnancy was fetal distress or fetal death, and not maternal condition. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Maternal mortality and morbidity. RESULTS: All serious maternal complications occurred at the onset of the syndrome. Two mothers with HELLP syndrome died following a cerebral hemorrhage. The remaining patients recovered completely. Serious maternal morbidity occurred more often in cases of HELLP than in cases of ELLP syndrome. Seventy-nine (62%) women were not delivered after 3 days and 65 (51%) after 7 days. CONCLUSIONS: Severe complications only occurred at the onset of (H)ELLP syndrome. It is unlikely that a more aggressive approach would have reduced maternal mortality or morbidity.

[Breastfeeding and contraception]. / Borstvoeding en anticonceptie.

In the Netherlands many women stop breastfeeding in the first few months postpartum. In 1997, only 16.9% of all 3-month-old babies received full breastfeeding. One of the causes may be insufficient support by the medical profession. A second factor is that often combined oral contraceptives are prescribed to breastfeeding women. As it has been shown that estrogens in these contraceptives inhibit lactation, this is probably one of the reasons why breastfeeding frequently fails in this country. WHO advises not to use estrogens during lactation. According to recent research the lactational amenorrhoea method of contraception (LAM) is highly effective during the first 4 months postpartum. In the 5th and 6th month the effectiveness is strongly dependent on the accuracy by which the conditions are met. The medical profession should pay more attention to the support of breastfeeding and contraception in relation to each other.

School performance and behaviour in extremely preterm growth-retarded infants.

OBJECTIVE: To describe school performance and behaviour of extremely preterm, growth-retarded infants. DESIGN: Cohort study at two tertiary care centres. Included were all surviving, singleton infants (N= 127) with fetal growth retardation due to placental insufficiency. All were delivered by caesarean section because of signs of fetal distress before the beginning of labour at a gestational age of 26 to 32 weeks during the years 1984-1989. Main outcome measures were special education, mainstream education below the appropriate age level and behaviour according to attention-deficit hyperactivity criteria at school age (4 1/2-10 1/2 yrs). The children were divided into two subgroups according to age at follow-up (> or =7 1/2 and <7 1/2 yr). A logistic regression analysis was performed with special school or repeating a grade and behavioural disturbance as dependent variables and gestational age, birth weight, sex of the infant, neonatal complications (intra cerebral haemorrhage, respiratory distress syndrome, bronchopulmonary dysplasia or sepsis), age category at follow-up and sociodemographic factors as independent variables. RESULTS: 114 (90%) had a complete follow-up. Special education was found in 14% of the assessed children. More children in the older age group than in the younger age group were placed in special school (20% versus 10%). Behavioural problems were scored in 39% of the assessed children attending mainstream education. Special education was related to neonatal complications (bronchopulmonary dysplasia), behavioural problems to the absence of either parent. CONCLUSION: This specific group of growth-retarded children is at serious disadvantage for adequate performance in school, although the incidence of special education and behavioural problems was comparable to other preterm infants. Both special education and behavioural problems were not related to obstetric variables as gestational age and/or birth weight.

Vaginal delivery compared with caesarean section in early preterm breech delivery: a comparison of long term outcome.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the optimum mode of delivery of the early preterm fetus in breech presentation. DESIGN: Retrospective comparison of two cohorts of preterm breech fetus. SETTING: Two tertiary care centres: at one centre the preferred management for preterm breech presentation was vaginal delivery; at the other centre, the preferred method was caesarean section. POPULATION: All singleton infants delivered after breech presentation from 1984 through 1989, at a gestational age of 26 to 31 weeks. Those with lethal congenital abnormalities, placenta praevia, placental abruption, fetal death or fetal distress before the onset of labour were excluded. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Survival without disability or handicap documented at two years corrected age. The influence of a number of relevant variables on this outcome was assessed by logistic regression analysis. RESULTS: There was no difference in survival without disability or handicap between the centres (odds ratio 1.5, 95% CI 0.6-3.9 vaginal delivery compared with caesarean section). Survival without disability or handicap was positively influenced by increasing birthweight and corticosteroids > 24 h before birth, and negatively influenced by footling presentation. CONCLUSION: A policy of caesarean section for early preterm (26-31 weeks) breech delivery is not associated with increased survival without disability or handicap.

Obstetric outcome of elderly low-risk nulliparae.

OBJECTIVE: To compare referrals and reasons for referral during pregnancy and labor, mode of delivery and obstetric outcome of first births in women 35 years and older with women 20-30 years old. METHODS: A prospective cohort study was performed of 146 elderly and 306 younger nulliparae in seven independent midwives' practices in and around Amsterdam. RESULTS: No significant differences in referrals were found between the two compared groups. After selection during pregnancy, obstetric outcome was not different between the groups. A higher percentage of episiotomies was found in the elderly group, compared to the younger group. CONCLUSIONS: After proper selection during pregnancy, the elderly nullipara under the care of a midwife does not have an increased risk of fetal distress or other emergency factors, compared to the younger nullipara. However, high referral rates during labor - both of younger and older women - were observed in this study.

Risk factors for preeclampsia in nulliparous women in distinct ethnic groups: a prospective cohort study.

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether baseline characteristics during early pregnancy, proposed as potential risk factors for preeclampsia, show differences in prevalence and effects within distinct ethnic groups. METHODS: In a prospective cohort study of 2413 healthy nulliparous women from eight midwives' practices, we analyzed risk factors for preeclampsia (maternal age, body mass index, blood pressure at booking, smoking habit, and abortion history) in white, Mediterranean, Asian, and black women. In a univariate analysis, we estimated the relative risk of preeclampsia for the baseline variables and for ethnicity. In a multivariate analysis, we evaluated the simultaneous effect of the baseline variables in white (n = 1641) and black (n = 317) women. RESULTS: Significant differences were found in the prevalence of the risk factors in different ethnic groups. In the univariate analysis, the relative risk (RR) of preeclampsia in black women was 2.4 (95% confidence interval [CI] 1.1, 5.6) compared with white women. In the multivariate analysis in white women, the adjusted RR of preeclampsia for a diastolic blood pressure at booking above 70 mmHg was 4.4 (CI 0.9, 20.8). Among black women, the adjusted RR of preeclampsia was increased for high maternal age (RR 1.2; CI 1.0, 1.4), but not for a diastolic blood pressure at booking above 70 mmHg (RR 0.8; CI 0.2, 3.9). CONCLUSION: In studies of risk factors for preeclampsia, black women should be analyzed separately from white women.