Diagnostic issues in the clinical management of pericarditis.

AIMS: To review the current major diagnostic issues on the diagnosis of acute and recurrent pericarditis. METHODS: To review the current available evidence, we performed a through search of several evidence-based sources of information, including Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, Clinical Evidence, Evidence-based guidelines from National Guidelines Clearinghouse and a comprehensive Medline search with the MeSH terms 'pericarditis', 'etiology' and 'diagnosis'. RESULTS: The diagnosis of pericarditis is based on clinical criteria including symptoms, presence of specific physical findings (rubs), electrocardiographical changes and pericardial effusion. Although the aetiology may be varied, most cases are idiopathic or viral, even after an extensive diagnostic evaluation. In such cases, the course is often benign following anti-inflammatory treatment, and management would be not affected by a more precise diagnostic evaluation. A triage of pericarditis can be safely performed on the basis of the clinical and echocardiographical presentation. Specific diagnostic tests are not warranted if no specific aetiologies are suspected on the basis of the epidemiological background, history and presentation. High-risk features associated with specific aetiologies or complications include: fever > 38 degrees C, subacute onset, large pericardial effusion, cardiac tamponade, lack of response to aspirin or a NSAID. CONCLUSIONS: A targeted diagnostic evaluation is warranted in acute and recurrent pericarditis, with a specific aetiological search to rule out tuberculous, purulent or neoplastic pericarditis, as well as pericarditis related to a systemic disease, in selected patients according to the epidemiological background, presentation and clinical suspicion.

Management of heart failure in elderly people.

AIMS: To review currently available knowledge on presentation, clinical features and management of heart failure (HF) in elderly people. METHODS: To review currently available evidence, we performed a thorough search of several evidence-based sources of information, including Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, Clinical Evidence, Evidence-based guidelines from National Guidelines Clearinghouse and a comprehensive MEDLINE search with the MeSH terms: 'heart failure', 'elderly' and 'management'. RESULTS: A number of features of ageing may predispose elderly people to HF, and may impair the ability to respond to injuries. Another hallmark of elderly patients is the increasing prevalence of multiple coexisting chronic conditions and geriatric syndromes that may complicate the clinical presentation and evolution of HF. Although diagnosis may be challenging, because atypical symptoms and presentations are common, and comorbid conditions may mimic or complicate the clinical picture, diagnostic criteria do not change in elderly people. Drug treatment is not significantly different from that recommended in younger patients, and largely remains empiric, because clinical trials have generally excluded elderly people and patients with comorbid conditions. Disease management programmes may have the potential to reduce morbidity and mortality for patients with HF. CONCLUSIONS: Heart failure is the commonest reason for hospitalisation and readmission among older adults. HF shows peculiar features in elderly people, and is usually complicated by comorbidities, presenting a significant financial burden worldwide, nevertheless elderly people have been generally excluded from clinical trials, and thus management largely remains empiric and based on evidence from younger age groups.

Myopericarditis versus viral or idiopathic acute pericarditis.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the relative incidence, clinical presentation and prognosis of myopericarditis among patients with idiopathic or viral acute pericarditis. DESIGN: Prospective observational clinical cohort study. SETTING: Two general hospitals from an urban area of 220 000 inhabitants. PATIENTS: 274 consecutive cases of idiopathic or viral acute pericarditis between January 2001 and June 2005. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Relative prevalence of myopericarditis. Clinical features at presentation including echocardiographic data (ejection fraction (EF), wall motion score index (WMSI)) and follow-up data at 12 months including complications, results of echocardiography, electrocardiography and treadmill testing. RESULTS: Myopericarditis was recorded in 40/274 (14.6%) consecutive patients. At presentation, the following clinical features were independently associated with myopericarditis: arrhythmias (odds ratio (OR) = 17.6, 95% confidence interval (CI) 5.7 to 54.1; p<0.001), male gender (OR = 6.4, 95% CI 2.3 to 18.4; p = 0.01), age <40 years (OR = 6.1, 95% CI 2.2 to 16.9; p = 0.01), ST elevation (OR = 5.4, 95% CI 1.4 to 20.5; p = 0.013) and a recent febrile syndrome (OR = 2.8, 95% CI 1.1 to 7.7; p = 0.044). After 12 months' follow-up an increase of EF (basal EF 49.6 (5.1)% vs 12-month EF 59.1 (4.6)%; p<0.001) and decrease of WMSI (basal WMSI 1.19 (0.27) vs 12-month WMSI 1.02 (0.09); p<0.001) were recorded in patients with myopericarditis, with a normalisation of echocardiography, electrocardiography and treadmill testing in 98% of cases. Use of heparin or other anticoagulants (OR = 1.1, 95% CI 0.3 to 3.5; p = 0.918) and myopericarditis (OR = 2.3, 95% CI 0.7 to 7.6; p = 0.187) was not associated with an increased risk of cardiac tamponade or recurrences. CONCLUSIONS: Myopericarditis is relatively common and shows a benign evolution also in spontaneous cases not related to vaccination.

The changing face of infective endocarditis.

Infective endocarditis is a disease that continues to evolve in response to changing host conditions and other factors.

Omega-3 polyunsatured fatty acids role in postmyocardial infarction therapy.

Largely initiated by studies among Eskimos in the early 1970s, great attention has been given to possible effects of omega-3 polyunsatured fatty acids (PUFA) in cardiovascular diseases. A series of positive effects on pathogenetic mechanisms of cardiovascular disease has been discovered from laboratory studies in cell cultures, animal models and in humans. omega-3 PUFA can reduce platelets and leucocytes activities as well as plasma triglycerides. Moreover they can have antiarrhythmic properties. Nowadays patients who experienced myocardial infarction have decreased risk of total and cardiovascular mortality by treatment with omega-3 PUFA (1 g daily). This effect is present irrespective of high or low fish intake or simultaneous intake of other drugs for secondary prevention of coronary heart disease. Mainly on the basis of GISSI Prevention trial results, dietary supplementation with omega-3 PUFA is now recommended as a new component of secondary prevention after myocardial infarction in national and international guidelines.

New diagnostic criteria for infective endocarditis. A study of sensitivity and specificity.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to determine the sensitivity and specificity of new criteria proposed by Duke University for case definition of infective endocarditis as compared to the previously accepted Von Reyn criteria. PATIENTS: A total of 143 consecutive suspected cases of infective endocarditis in 137 febrile patients were included. Of these, 69 had infective endocarditis, pathologically proven in 28, but with only a clinical diagnosis in 41. In the remaining 74 cases, the diagnosis of infective endocarditis was rejected after a follow-up of at least 3 months. RESULTS: The sensitivity of Duke's criteria was significantly higher, both when patients with possible infective endocarditis were considered as true-positive (definition 1; 100% vs 69%, P < 0.001) and when possible cases were considered as rejected (definition 2; 76% vs 51%, P < 0.01). Specificity was very high with both criteria: 92% Von Reyn vs 88% Duke (ns) with definition 1 and 99% Von Reyn vs 97% Duke (ns) with definition 2. The overall accuracy of the Duke criteria in the entire population was significantly higher with both definitions (0.94 vs 0.81 definition 1, P < 0.001; 0.87 vs 0.75, P = 0.015 definition 2). CONCLUSION: Duke's criteria for defining infective endocarditis has been shown to be more sensitive than previously adopted criteria, while maintaining a high degree of specificity. Therefore, they must be accepted as a substitute for previous criteria.

[Differences in pharmacologic treatment after acute myocardial infarction. The role of treatment effectiveness]. / Differenze nel trattamento farmacologico dopo infarto miocardico acuto. Ruolo dell'efficacia dei trattamenti.

BACKGROUND: Despite growing interest concerning the prescription of different drugs in different clinical settings, no explanatory variables have been determined. The aim of this study was to verify if there are any differences in drug prescription at the time of hospital release following myocardial infarction and if any of these differences can be explained by scientific evidence concerning treatment efficacy. METHODS: All drugs prescribed to 430 patients discharged from three different cardiology departments after acute myocardial infarction were analyzed. Based on current scientific evidence, it has been, ascertained that aspirin, beta-blockers and ACE-inhibitors can be prescribed unless contraindicate whereas anticoagulants, nitrates and calcium antagonists should be prescribed only in specific clinical conditions. The odd ratio of prescription of each drug among the three cardiology departments was calculated and adjusted for any clinical and test result variables that can specifically affect drug prescription. RESULTS: Different clinical characteristics of the patients discharged from the three cardiology departments are the following: mean age ranges from 60 to 66 years (p < 0.001), the incidence of non-Q myocardial infarction ranges from 23 to 45% (p < 0.001), post infarction angina ranges from 6 to 15% (p = 0.016), left ventricular failure ranges from 6 to 13% (p = 0.003) and arrhythmia ranges from 5 to 18% (p = 0.007). The adjusted odd ratio for clinical and test results variables showed that prescriptions were similar for ACE-inhibitors (odd ratio 1.3; 95% confidence interval from 0.6 to 3.2), aspirin (OR 2.2; 95% confidence interval from 0.8 to 5.5), beta-blockers (OR 2.2, 95% confidence interval from 0.9 to 5.5) and oral anticoagulants (1.6; 95% confidence interval from 0.6 to 4.5). Instead, there is a statistically significant difference in the prescription of nitrates (OR 4.4; 95% confidence interval from 1.6 to 12.3) and of calcium antagonists (OR 5.4%, 95% confidence interval from 1.0 to 12.5). CONCLUSIONS: Evidence based drug efficacy after acute myocardial infarction seems to establish a uniform pattern of drug prescription in different cardiology departments.

Diagnostic value of echocardiography in infective endocarditis: a probabilistic approach.

The high sensitivity and specificity of echocardiography in the diagnosis of infective endocarditis have been well established for a number of years. However, little is known yet about the incremental value of this technique over the clinical and serological findings already available in subsets of patients presenting different initial probabilities in infective endocarditis. In this report, sensitivity and specificity of echocardiography were calculated in 173 consecutive patients with suspected infective endocarditis who underwent echocardiography within 5 days following admission. The echocardiogram was considered positive when Duke major criteria were fulfilled. Infective endocarditis was diagnosed in 88 patients, while other illnesses in the remaining 85. The diagnoses were confirmed retrospectively with a follow-up done after at least 3 months, at surgery or during autopsy. Sensitivity and specificity of the echocardiography in this population were 85 and 97% respectively. The initial probabilities of infective endocarditis in patients with different clinical presentations were taken from a thorough review of the literature available in English and from personal research. The positive predictive value of echocardiography is already high or very high even at low or very low levels of initial probability, and this has a strong impact on clinical decisions. In these situations and with intermediate probabilities, a negative echocardiogram would theoretically rule out the disease. However, this result, if considered alone, calls for a careful reassessment of the entire clinical context. As with any other test, when the initial probabilities of infective endocarditis are highest, the incremental value of echocardiography is poor.

[Cardiac complications in HIV infections]. / Complicazioni cardiache nella infezione HIV.

UNLABELLED: Cardiological involvement in HIV infection is relatively rare but it presents important clinical aspects that are still open questions. We report our experience with HIV patients who underwent cardiological evaluation, Doppler echocardiography and follow-up. MATERIAL AND METHOD: We selected 127 patients (9%) on the basis of clinical suspicion of heart disease, taking them from the 1398 admitted for HIV infection between 1992 and 1995. Ninety-six patients had AIDS (group A) and 31 were in pre-AIDS phase (group B). The age was 21-52 years: 83 were males, 44 were females and 91% of the patients had been drug addicts. Echocardiography was executed with Hp Sonos 1000 and Sonos 2500 devices. Follow-up was 6-36 months. RESULTS: Ninety-two patients (6.5% on total admitted patients) had heart disease. Thirty-five patients were normal on echocardiography. Other diseases were: pericardial effusion in 38 cases (30%), with CD4+ number significantly lower (p < 0.005); dilated cardiomyopathy in 20 patients (16%), with a low CD4+ number (p < 0.005); reversible segmental or diffuse hypokinesia compatible with clinical myocarditis was seen in 11 patients (9%), especially in group A (p < 0.005); infective endocarditis in 17 patients (13%), especially group B (p < 0.005); right ventricular dilatation in 7; discrete right ventricular mass in 3 patients. Sixty-five patients (51%) died during follow-up (group A only). There were 19 cardiac deaths (15%), which represents 1.3% of the total number of patients. Nine of these (47%) were in patients with cardiomyopathy. Total mortality was 85% in patients with dilated cardiomyopathy, 73% in myocarditis cases, 71% in pericarditis cases (especially extracardiac), 66% in right ventricular dilatation cases, 18% in endocarditis cases, 34% in normal cases. CONCLUSIONS: Cardiac complications assume clinical importance, especially in the AIDS phase of HIV infection, but early diagnosis in the pre-AIDS phase is important for treatment. Clinical evaluation and echocardiography are corner-stones of the diagnosis. Prognosis depends especially on the clinical stage of HIV infection and myocardial involvement.

[Aortic dissection in pregnancy: report of 2 cases]. / Dissezione aortica in gravidanza: relazione su due casi.

Two women suffered from aortic dissection during the third term of pregnancy. The first one, 37 years old, died from a sudden and intractable cardiovascular shock at the end of pregnancy, but the fetus was saved by cesarean. The diagnosis was made post mortem. In the second case a faster diagnosis and a slower development of the aortic dissection allowed, during the 29th week of pregnancy, a surgical treatment after cesarean saving both the mother's and newborn's life. The histological examination in both cases showed only non specific alterations of the collagenous and the elastic fibres.

[Neural regulation of heart rate. Spectrum analysis of the RR interval in healthy subjects]. / Modulazione neurale della frequenza cardiaca. Analisi spettrale dell'intervallo RR in soggetti sani.

Dynamic 24-hour recordings were obtained in 10 healthy non hospitalized subjects. Spectral analysis of RR interval variabilities provided quantitative markers of sympatho-vagal balance throughout the day and night. The low frequency (0.1 Hz) component was considered a marker of sympathetic activity whereas the high frequency component (0.25 Hz) a marker of vagal tone. We observed an early morning rise in the sympathetic activity markers in all our patients, with a second smaller rise in the early afternoon. We believe this rise may be the trigger of the increased rate of major cardiovascular events reported to happen in the first hours of the morning.

[Rupture of left ventricular pseudoaneurysm in a patient with diagnosis of unstable angina]. / Rottura di pseudoaneurisma ventricolare sinistro in una paziente con diagnosi di angina instabile.

A case of cardiac rupture with left ventricular apical pseudoaneurysm is reported. This occurred 20 days after an episode of prolonged chest pain at rest without enzymatic or electrocardiographic evidence of myocardial infarction. Prompt recognition of this condition on an echocardiogram at the onset of cardiac tamponade, with immediate angiographic confirmation enabled successful emergency surgery.

Fixed subaortic stenosis. Natural history of patients with mild obstruction and follow-up of operated patients.

Fifty-five patients, 37 men and 18 women, aged 8 to 71 years (median 23) with a diagnosis of fixed subaortic stenosis were seen in our institution between January 1966 and December 1983. Their subvalvular gradient varied between 0 and 135 mmHg. Aortic regurgitation was present in 44 patients. Thirty-eight patients were operated on. Sixteen patients had some additional cardiac disease, either congenital, or acquired. There were 2 early and 2 late deaths. Fifteen patients were studied again after surgery: the average peak-to-peak gradient has decreased from 88 +/- 28 to 19 +/- 16 mmHg and is zero in 5. No patient has needed a reoperation, so far. Of the 17 non-operated patients, 13 had a gradient of less than 50 mmHg; they are all in Class I-II after 1-5 years. The gradient has increased to 70 mmHg in 1 of the 4 recatheterised cases. Four patients have died, 2 suddenly, 2 of congestive heart failure. They all had a gradient of 55 mmHg or more. In conclusion, in asymptomatic patients of a somewhat "older" age, with a high prevalence of a discrete form of subaortic stenosis, an operation can be deferred if the pressure gradient is less than 50 mmHg, and there are no associated lesions. Identification of patients running the risk of sudden death remains elusive.

[Early submaximal exercise test after acute myocardial infarct. Is it a useful test?]. / Prova da sforzo precoce submassimale dopo infarto miocardico acuto. E utile eseguirla?

One hundred and twenty asymptomatic patients underwent a submaximal treadmill exercise 2-3 weeks after an acute myocardial infarction. These patients were subsequently followed from 15 to 54 months (average 2 years). Coronary events (cardiac death or angina) occurred in 14% of the patients with normal response, in 55% of those with ischemic response and in 12% of those with abnormal but non-ischemic response. The incidence of coronary events in patients with ischemic response is significantly higher than in the other two groups. However, among the patients who had a normal response, one out of seven suffered from a coronary event during the follow-up period. More than 25% of our patients with an ischemic response to the early exercise testing showed a non-ischemic response during a second one. On the other hand, more than 25% of our patients with normal early exercise test had an ischemic response when the test was performed at the end the follow-up period. Submaximal exercise testing of asymptomatic patients early after an acute myocardial infarction does not seem to be predictive of future coronary events and its long-term reproducibility is poor.