Nudging healthy food choices through e-messages in a supermarket.

This paper analyses the impact of a healthy food nudge intervention on purchases of 1590 customers of a supermarket chain's loyalty program in Uruguay through a randomized controlled trial. Nudges were presented in the form of messages sent through WhatsApp to customers three times a week for 8 weeks (between July and September 2020). Messages highlighted the benefits of cooking at home and eating mindfully and healthy (vegetables, fruits, healthy snacks, legumes, and fish), and included easy to implement tips. Results show that, on average, customers assigned to the treatment group increased their purchases of healthy food by 8% and substituted sugar-sweetened for sugar-free beverages. We find an unintended increase in purchases of unhealthy food of 7%, with no correlative increase in calories, suggesting that customers substituted higher calorie products for lower calorie ones. We find that households with lower educational attainment, lower income, and with children under the age of 12 are more likely to increase purchases of fruits and vegetables, while other households are more likely to improve the diet quality without increasing expenditure. Effects do not persist after the intervention is over, suggesting that salience, rather than information is the main channel triggering the effects.

Subdermal contraceptive implants and repeat teenage motherhood: Evidence from a major maternity hospital-based program in Uruguay.

Teenage fertility is a social problem because of its private and public costs in countries of different development levels. Reductions in adolescent birth rates do not necessarily follow drops in overall fertility due to the demographic transition model. This paper analyses the impact of a subdermal contraceptive program on repeat teenage motherhood. Using a regression discontinuity design, we find that the intervention reduced mothers' likelihood of having another child in the next 48 months by 10 percentage points. This reduction is not random, and we also identify small positive selection in subsequent births.

Immigrant assimilation in health care utilisation in Spain.

Abundant evidence has tracked the labour market and health assimilation of immigrants, including static analyses of differences in how foreign-born and native-born residents consume health care services. However, we know much less about how migrants' patterns of healthcare usage evolve with time of residence, especially in countries providing universal or quasi-universal coverage. We investigate this process in Spain by combining all the available waves of the local health survey, which allows us to separately identify period, cohort, and assimilation effects. We find robust evidence of migrant assimilation in health care use, specifically in visits to general practitioners and emergency care and among foreign-born women. The differential effects of ageing on health care use between foreign-born and native-born populations contributes to the convergence of utilisation patterns in most health services after 15 years in Spain. Substantial heterogeneity by the time of arrival and by region of origin both suggest that studies modelling future welfare state finances would benefit from a more thorough assessment of migration.

The COVID-19 pandemic and birth outcomes in 2020: The role of prenatal care and other channels.

We use national birth data to assess the associations between the COVID-19 pandemic during 2020 and birth outcomes in Uruguay. Employing interrupted time series difference-in-differences techniques, we find mixed results, with some pregnancies showing increases in the likelihood of very preterm or very-low-weight births, and some others showing decreases in the incidence of moderate prematurity and moderate low birth weight. Adverse outcomes are more likely among women with low education, women with previous children, and with risk factors, such as smoking or being older than 34. We observe improvements in health at birth for children of non-smokers, women younger than 35, and women with no other children. We underscore the role of health care by showing that women in the private sector, who suffered the strongest contraction in face-to-face prenatal care use, experienced more adverse birth outcomes. Our results also suggest that the economic recession and an increased burden of childcare were behind the increases in preterm and very-low-weight births. Because pollution is an unlikely channel for the positive results, we hypothesize that for some pregnancies, the pandemic improved the intrauterine habitat by leading to a quieter and healthier lifestyle.

Salud y acceso a cuidados médicos durante la pandemia en Uruguay / Health and access to medical care during the covid-19 pandemic / Saúde e acesso a cuidados médicos durante a pandemia no Uruguai

Resumen: Introducción: la pandemia provocada por la COVID-19 ha cambiado drásticamente las modalidades de atención médica ambulatoria y cuidado de la salud. Uruguay implementó, desde el 15 de marzo de 2020, una serie de cambios en el sistema de salud para focalizar los recursos disponibles y evitar contagios. Objetivo: presentar los resultados de la Encuesta sobre Salud y Acceso a Cuidados Médicos (ESAC) durante la emergencia sanitaria originada por el COVID-19 en Uruguay en el período desde el 13 de marzo al 30 de mayo de 2020. El objetivo es mostrar el impacto que la pandemia tuvo sobre algunos aspectos de la atención médica recibida. Material y métodos: la ESAC, dirigida a residentes en Uruguay mayores de 18 años, fue aplicada a través de un cuestionario autoadministrado por internet entre el 10 y el 27 de julio de 2020. La muestra total es de 1.750 encuestas y relevó información relativa a la salud y cuidados médicos. Resultados: la crisis sanitaria propició un cambio en la modalidad de la práctica clínica, con una alta participación de la telemedicina, la cual fue mayoritariamente definida por el centro de salud. Se encontró una alta satisfacción en la gestión y atención durante la pandemia. Sin embargo, destaca el alto porcentaje de estudios médicos, procedimientos o tratamientos en curso o previstos que fueron suspendidos o pospuestos. En el caso de los niños menores de 12 años, se encuentra que más de la mitad tuvo que retrasar alguna vacuna prevista. Conclusiones: en el futuro será necesario que el sistema de salud preste especial atención a la forma en que se definen e implementan las nuevas modalidades de consulta, tiempos de espera máximos, y la correcta atención a quienes padecen enfermedades crónicas, para garantizar el acceso a cuidados médicos oportunos y de calidad.

Summary: Introduction: the COVID-19 pandemic has drastically changed the outpatient medical care modalities and health care services in general. Since March 15, 2020, Uruguay has implemented changes in the health system aiming to focus the resources available and to avoid infection. Objective: to present the results of the survey on health and access to medical care (ESAC) during the health emergency caused by the COVID-19 pandemic in Uruguay from March 13 to May 20, 2020. The study aims to present the impact of the pandemic on several aspects in connection with health care services. Method: the ESAC survey, aimed at residents in Uruguay who are over 18 years old, consisted of a self-administered online questionnaire applied between 10 and 27 July, 2020. The total sample included 1750 surveys that assessed medical care and health services. Results: the health crisis favored changes in the clinical practice modalities, what was evident in the significant increase of telemedicine, what was mainly defined by each medical institution. The survey revealed a high degree of satisfaction among users, in terms of response to the pandemic and the services offered by their institutions. However, it is worth pointing out that a high percentage of medical tests, procedures or ongoing or intended therapies were cancelled or postponed. In the case of children under 12 years old, over half of them received their vaccinations later than what was expected. Conclusions: in the future, the health system must pay special attention to the way in which new consultation modalities are defined and implemented, as well as the maximum waiting times and the appropriate provision of services for chronic patients, to ensure access to timely and quality medical care.

Resumo: Introdução: a pandemia causada pela COVID 19 mudou dramaticamente as modalidades do atendimento médico ambulatorial e dos cuidados de saúde. O Uruguai, desde 15 de março de 2020, implementou uma série de mudanças no sistema de saúde com o objetivo de focar os recursos disponíveis e prevenir infecções. Objetivo: apresentar os resultados da Pesquisa de Saúde e Acesso à Assistência Médica (ESAC) durante a emergência sanitária causada pela COVID-19 no Uruguai de 13 de março a 30 de maio de 2020. O objetivo é mostrar o impacto que a pandemia teve sobre alguns aspectos do atendimento médico recebido. Material e métodos: a ESAC, destinado a residentes no Uruguai maiores de 18 anos, foi aplicada por meio de questionário autoaplicável na internet entre 10 e 27 de julho de 2020. A amostra total é de 1.750 inquéritos e informações coletadas relacionadas à saúde e aos cuidados médicos. Resultados: a crise de saúde levou a uma mudança na modalidade de prática clínica com alta participação da telemedicina, que era definida em grande parte pela instituição de saúde. Durante a pandemia se registrou uma elevada satisfação na gestão e cuidados de saúde. No entanto, destaca-se o alto percentual de exames, procedimentos ou tratamentos médicos em andamento ou planejados que foram suspensos ou adiados. No caso de crianças menores de 12 anos, verifica-se que mais da metade teve que adiar uma vacinação planejada. Conclusões: futuramente, será necessário que o sistema de saúde preste atenção especial à forma como são definidas e implementadas novas modalidades de consulta, tempos máximos de espera e o correto atendimento aos portadores de doenças crônicas, para garantir o acesso ao atendimento médico oportuno e de qualidade.

The effects of expanded social health insurance on young mothers: Lessons from a pro-choice reform in Uruguay.

With the implementation of the National Integrated Health System in 2007, the Uruguayan government extended social health insurance (SHI) to groups of individuals previously covered by the public safety net (PSN) or that paid for private insurance out-of-pocket. The policy allowed new beneficiaries to choose care from a set of private providers. In this study, we focus on the extension of SHI to adolescent mothers previously covered by the PSN. Exploiting the gradual incorporation of children of formal workers during the 2008-2013 period, and the geographic variation in the intensity of the reform, we find suggestive evidence that the increase in choice associated to the expansion of SHI decreased adolescent fertility, improved prenatal care and birthweight, and decreased first year mortality among low birthweight infants. These effects were only observed in the medium run, suggesting initial choice frictions and input shortage. We provide evidence that families increased their choice of private providers and that market concentration decreased in certain areas of the country, supporting the hypothesis that choice, and possibly competition, were the main mechanisms behind the findings.

Horizontal inequity in the use and access to health care in Uruguay.

BACKGROUND: In 2007 Uruguay began a reform in the health sector towards the construction of a National Integrated Health System (SNIS), based on public insurance with private and public provision. The main objective of the reform was to universalize access to health services. METHODS: Data comes from the first National Health Survey conducted in 2014 and available since 2016. Concentration indices are calculated for different indicators of use and access to medical services, for the population 18 years of age and older, and for different subgroups (age, sex, region and type of coverage). The indices are decomposed into need and non-need variables and the contribution of each of them to total inequality is analyzed. Horizontal inequity is calculated. RESULTS: Results show pro-rich inequality for medical consultations, medical analysis, medication use and non-access due to costs. Type of health coverage is the variable that explains most of the inequality: private coverage is pro-rich while public coverage is pro-poor. Income does not appear as significant to explain inequality, except for access issues. From the population subgroups' analysis, there is no evidence of inequality for the group of 60 years old or more. On the other hand, studies such as Pap Smear and prostate, which may be associated with preventive studies,, shows pro-rich inequality and, in both cases, the main contribution is given by income. CONCLUSIONS: The analysis of health inequity shows pro-rich inequity in medical consultations, medical analysis, medication use and lack of access due to costs. The type of health coverage explains these inequalities; in particular, private coverage is pro-rich. These results suggest that the type of health coverage are capturing the income factor, since higher income individuals will be more likely to be treated in the private system.

Análisis de las cesáreas en Uruguay por tipo de centro hospitalario / An analysis of caesarean sections in Uruguay by type of hospital

Objetivo: Analizar comparativamente la incidencia de las cesáreas en los subsistemas de salud de Uruguay y en relación con los estándares de la Organización Mundial de la Salud (OMS) considerando las características médico-obstétricas de los partos, en especial la clasificación de Robson. Método: Se emplean 190.847 nacimientos registrados en el Sistema Informático Perinatal de Uruguay entre 2009 y 2014 por tipo de subsector sanitario. Mediante modeloslogitse analiza la probabilidad de cesárea considerando la clasificación de Robson, otros factores de riesgo y las características de las madres. Se comparan las tasas de cesárea predichas por los distintos subsectores sanitarios para una población común. Asimismo, se contraponen las tasas de cesáreas observadas en cada subsistema con las que, hipotéticamente, se encontrarían si los hospitales siguiesen las pautas de la muestra de hospitales de referencia de la OMS. Resultados: El subsector privado, en términos generales, presenta una incidencia de cesáreas mucho más elevada que el público, incluso después de considerar las características médico-obstétricas de los nacimientos. Las tasas de cesáreas en Uruguay están más de un 75% por encima del valor que cabría esperar de acuerdo con el modelo de la OMS. Conclusiones: La incidencia de cesáreas en Uruguay es muy alta respecto a los estándares definidos por la OMS, en especial en el subsector privado. Este hecho no se explica por las características clínicas de los nacimientos

Objective: To analyse on a comparative basis the incidence of caesarean sections among the different health care systems in Uruguay and with respect to the World Health Organization's (WHO) standards, taking into account the medical-obstetric characteristics of the births, particularly, the Robson classification. Methods: We examine 190,847 births registered by the Perinatal Information System in Uruguay between 2009 and 2014 by type of health care system. Usinglogitmodels, we analyse the probability of caesarean section taking into account the Robson classification, other risk factors and the mothers’ characteristics. We compared the caesarean rates predicted by the different subsystems for a common population. Furthermore, we contrast the caesarean rates observed in each subsystem with the rates that resulted if the Uruguayan hospitals followed the guidelines of the sample of WHO reference hospitals. Results: Private health systems in Uruguay exhibit a much higher incidence of caesarean sections than public ones, even after considering the medical-obstetric characteristics of the births. Caesarean rates are more than 75% higher than those observed if the WHO standards are applied. Conclusions: Uruguay has a very high incidence of caesarean sections with respect to WHO standards, particularly, in the private sector. This fact is unrelated to the clinical characteristics of the births

[An analysis of caesarean sections in Uruguay by type of hospital]. / Análisis de las cesáreas en Uruguay por tipo de centro hospitalario.

OBJECTIVE: To analyse on a comparative basis the incidence of caesarean sections among the different health care systems in Uruguay and with respect to the World Health Organization's (WHO) standards, taking into account the medical-obstetric characteristics of the births, particularly, the Robson classification. METHODS: We examine 190,847 births registered by the Perinatal Information System in Uruguay between 2009 and 2014 by type of health care system. Using logit models, we analyse the probability of caesarean section taking into account the Robson classification, other risk factors and the mothers' characteristics. We compared the caesarean rates predicted by the different subsystems for a common population. Furthermore, we contrast the caesarean rates observed in each subsystem with the rates that resulted if the Uruguayan hospitals followed the guidelines of the sample of WHO reference hospitals. RESULTS: Private health systems in Uruguay exhibit a much higher incidence of caesarean sections than public ones, even after considering the medical-obstetric characteristics of the births. Caesarean rates are more than 75% higher than those observed if the WHO standards are applied. CONCLUSIONS: Uruguay has a very high incidence of caesarean sections with respect to WHO standards, particularly, in the private sector. This fact is unrelated to the clinical characteristics of the births.

The impact of the legalisation of abortion on birth outcomes in Uruguay.

This study investigates the short-term impact on the quantity and quality of births of an abortion reform in Uruguay that legalised termination of pregnancy until the 12th week of pregnancy in the short run. We employ a differences-in-differences approach, comprehensive administrative records of births, and a novel identification strategy based on the planned or unplanned nature of pregnancies that came to term. Our results suggest that this policy change has led to an 8% decline in the number of births from unplanned pregnancies, driven by the group of mothers aged between 20 and 34 years old who have secondary education. This decline has triggered an increase in the average quality of births in terms of more intensive prenatal control care and a lower probability of births among single mothers. Furthermore, we document a positive selection process of births because of the reform, as adequate prenatal control care and Apgar scores rose among the affected demographic group.

Impact of plain packaging of cigarettes on the risk perception of Uruguayan smokers: an experimental study.

BACKGROUND: Uruguay, a South American country of 3.4 million inhabitants that has already banned tobacco advertising, prohibited such terms as light, mild and low-tar and required graphic warnings covering 80% of cigarette packs, is considering the imposition of plain, standardised packaging. METHODS: We conducted an experimental choice-based conjoint analysis of the impact of alternative cigarette package designs on the risk perceptions of 180 adult current Uruguayan smokers. We compared plain packaging, with a standardised brand description and the dark brown background colour required on Australian cigarette packages, to two controls: the current package design with distinctive brand elements and colours; and a modified package design, with distinctive brand elements and the dark brown background colour. Graphic warnings were also varied. RESULTS: Plain packaging significantly reduced the probability of perceiving the stimulus cigarettes as less harmful in comparison to the current package design (OR 0.398, 95% CI 0.333 to 0.476, p<0.001) and the modified package design (OR 0.729, 95% CI 0.626 to 0.849, p<0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Plain packaging enhanced the perceived risk of cigarette products even in a highly regulated setting such as Uruguay. Both the elimination of distinctive brand elements and the use of Australia's dark brown background colour contributed to the observed effect.

[Evaluation of Uruguay's antismoking campaign: progress and challenges at ten years]. / Evaluación de la campaña antitabaco en Uruguay: balance de diez años y desafíos.

In 2005, shortly after ratifying the Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (FCTC), Uruguay began an ambitious tobacco control campaign that brought the country to the global forefront in the fight against smoking. The wide range of measures implemented in a relatively short period and the rigorousness with which policies were implemented and enforced have few precedents, even in the most developed countries. This paper presents a synthesis and update of several papers by the authors that evaluate different aspects of the campaign ten years following ratification of the FCTC. In particular, these research studies highlight the campaign's aggregate impact on the drop in prevalence of current tobacco consumption in adult and youth populations, and on decisions by pregnant women to quit smoking (1, 2), as well as the relative impact of tax policies in relation to non-price tobacco control measures. The analyses are based on observational studies (at the population or individual level) that use external (Argentina and Chile) and internal (nonsmokers) control groups. Pending challenges in the design of antismoking policies are also discussed.

Evaluación de la campaña antitabaco en Uruguay: balance de diez años y desafíos / Evaluation of Uruguay’s antismoking campaign: progress and challenges at ten years

En el año 2005, poco tiempo después de ratificar el Convenio Marco para el Control del Tabaco (CMCT), Uruguay comenzó una ambiciosa campaña de control de tabaco que ubicó a este país a la vanguardia mundial de la lucha antitabaco. La gran diversidad de medidas implementadas en un lapso relativamente corto y la rigurosidad con que se aplicaron y observaron las políticas tienen escasos precedentes, incluso en los países más desarrollados. En este trabajo, se presenta una síntesis y actualización de varios trabajos de los autores en los que se evalúan algunos aspectos de la campaña a diez años de la ratificación del CMCT. En particular, estas investigaciones resaltan el impacto agregado que tuvo la campaña en la caída de la prevalencia en la población adulta, en los jóvenes y en las decisiones de abandono del consumo de tabaco en las embarazadas (1, 2), así como el impacto relativo de las políticas impositivas en relación a medidas de control de tabaco distintas de los precios. Los análisis se basan en estudios observacionales (a nivel de la población o el individuo) que utilizan grupos de control externos (Argentina y Chile) e internos (población no fumadora). Se plantean, también, los desafíos pendientes en el diseño de políticas antitabaco.

In 2005, shortly after ratifying the Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (FCTC), Uruguay began an ambitious tobacco control campaign that brought the country to the global forefront in the fight against smoking. The wide range of measures implemented in a relatively short period and the rigorousness with which policies were implemented and enforced have few precedents, even in the most developed countries. This paper presents a synthesis and update of several papers by the authors that evaluate different aspects of the campaign ten years following ratification of the FCTC. In particular, these research studies highlight the campaign’s aggregate impact on the drop in prevalence of current tobacco consumption in adult and youth populations, and on decisions by pregnant women to quit smoking (1, 2), as well as the relative impact of tax policies in relation to non-price tobacco control measures. The analyses are based on observational studies (at the population or individual level) that use external (Argentina and Chile) and internal (nonsmokers) control groups. Pending challenges in the design of antismoking policies are also discussed.

Evolution of adolescent fertility after decriminalization of abortion in Montevideo, Uruguay.

OBJECTIVE: To analyze the effect on adolescent fertility in Montevideo of the Uruguayan law on the voluntary termination of pregnancy that was passed in 2012. METHODS: The change in the number of births to teenage mothers between 2010 and 2014 was analyzed, along with their characteristics before and after decriminalization of abortion. RESULTS: Descriptive analysis of abortion before and after decriminalization showed that there was no reduction, during the period analyzed, in adolescent fertility, nor any changes in the distribution of births. CONCLUSION: The normative change brought about by the law on the voluntary termination of pregnancy was not associated with any substantial change in the reproductive behavior of adolescents in Montevideo. We recommend that this analysis is taken further with impact evaluation methodologies.

Evolution of adolescent fertility after decriminalization of abortion in Montevideo, Uruguay.

OBJECTIVE: To analyze the effect on adolescent fertility in Montevideo of the Uruguayan law on the voluntary termination of pregnancy that was passed in 2012. METHODS: The change in the number of births to teenage mothers between 2010 and 2014 was analyzed, along with their characteristics before and after decriminalization of abortion. RESULTS: Descriptive analysis of abortion before and after decriminalization showed that there was no reduction, during the period analyzed, in adolescent fertility, nor any changes in the distribution of births. CONCLUSION: The normative change brought about by the law on the voluntary termination of pregnancy was not associated with any substantial change in the reproductive behavior of adolescents in Montevideo. We recommend that this analysis is taken further with impact evaluation methodologies.

Tobacco control campaign in Uruguay: Impact on smoking cessation during pregnancy and birth weight.

We analyzed a nationwide registry of all pregnancies in Uruguay during 2007-2013 to assess the impact of three types of tobacco control policies: (1) provider-level interventions aimed at the treatment of nicotine dependence, (2) national-level increases in cigarette taxes, and (3) national-level non-price regulation of cigarette packaging and marketing. We estimated models of smoking cessation during pregnancy at the individual, provider and national levels. The rate of smoking cessation during pregnancy increased from 15.4% in 2007 to 42.7% in 2013. National-level non-price policies had the largest estimated impact on cessation. The price response of the tobacco industry attenuated the effects of tax increases. While provider-level interventions had a significant effect, they were adopted by relatively few health centers. Quitting during pregnancy increased birth weight by an estimated 188 g. Tobacco control measures had no effect on the birth weight of newborns of non-smoking women.

Tobacco control campaign in Uruguay: a population-based trend analysis.

BACKGROUND: In 2005, Uruguay initiated a series of comprehensive anti-smoking measures. We aimed to assess the effect of Uruguay's anti-tobacco campaign. METHODS: We did a population-based trend analysis, using neighbouring Argentina, which has not instituted such extensive anti-tobacco measures, as a control. We assessed three key endpoints in both countries: per-person consumption of cigarettes, as measured by tax records; the prevalence of tobacco use in adolescents, as measured by school-based surveys; and the prevalence of tobacco use in adults, as measured by nationwide household-based surveys. FINDINGS: During 2005-11, per-person consumption of cigarettes in Uruguay decreased by 4·3% per year (95% CI 2·4 to 6·2), whereas per-person consumption in Argentina increased by 0·6% per year (-1·2 to 2·5; p=0·002 for difference in trends). During 2003-09, the 30-day prevalence of tobacco use in Uruguayan students aged 13 years, 15 years, and 17 years decreased by an estimated 8·0% per year (4·5 to 11·6), compared with a decrease of 2·5% annually (0·5 to 4·5) in Argentinian students during 2001-09 (p=0·02 for difference in trends). From 2005 to 2011, the prevalence of current tobacco use in Uruguay decreased annually by an estimated 3·3% (2·4 to 4·1), compared with an annual decrease in Argentina of 1·7% (0·8 to 2·6; p=0·02 for difference in trends). INTERPRETATION: Uruguay's comprehensive tobacco-control campaign has been associated with a substantial, unprecedented decrease in tobacco use. Decreases in tobacco use in other low-income and middle-income countries of the magnitude seen in Uruguay would have a substantial effect on the future global burden of tobacco-related diseases. FUNDING: J William Fulbright Foreign Scholarship Board and the US Department of State.

The effect of physicians' remuneration system on the Caesarean section rate: the Uruguayan case.

Using data about births from the perinatal information system (PIS) registered in Montevideo (Uruguay), we estimated the probability of having a Caesarian section delivery, controlled by risk factors and the endogeneity of the choice of hospital. In public hospitals in Montevideo there is a fixed payment system, but in private hospitals this procedure has to be paid for separately. In the former, there is no effect on the doctor's income if he performs a Caesarian, but in the latter there is a positive effect. Empirical evidence shows the probability of a Caesarean section increases with the age of the woman, the presence of eclampsy, pre-eclampsy, previous hypertension, previous Caesarean sections, multiple pregnancies and fetopelvic disproportion, and decreases for multiparous women and women in a public hospital. In fact, the probability of having a Caesarean section in a private institution is almost two times higher than in a public hospital (20% as against 39%). Focusing on women without risk factors, we found that the probability a Caesarian in a public hospital was 11%, but the probability in a private hospital was 25%. We conclude that the remuneration system explains an important part of this difference.

The impact of prenatal care on birthweight: the case of Uruguay.

This study analyzes prenatal care and birthweight in Uruguay. These data are unique since they represent a population of urban, poor women who gave birth in a health care system that provides both prenatal and obstetric care free of charge. This study finds a positive effect of increased prenatal care use on birthweight and evidence of bias in OLS estimates, similar to studies that use US data. The results highlight the usefulness of existing methodologies for estimating the effect of prenatal care on birthweight and the importance of extending these methodologies to data from countries other than the US.