The contribution of chronic peer victimization in elementary school to depressive symptoms in adolescence.

Throughout his career, John Schulenberg challenged us to understand adolescent development as the confluence of distal and proximal experiences along with critical transitions. Heeding this call, we examined whether chronic childhood peer victimization predicted adolescents' depressive symptoms via early-emerging depression growth trajectories, continued victimization into adolescence, and stress-amplification at the middle school transition. Self-reported depressive symptoms and teacher-reported and self-reported peer victimization were obtained from 636 youth (338 girls; Mage = 7.96 years, 66.7% White, 21.7% Black, 11.6% other) in the 2nd-9th grades. Latent growth curve analyses revealed that, by 7th grade, chronic childhood peer victimization was associated with depressive symptoms only through an indirect association with peer victimization in adolescence, underscoring how interrelated historical and ongoing interpersonal stressors contribute to adolescent psychopathology.

Reconnecting to Internal Sensations and Experiences (RISE): An online, multi-session intervention improves interoceptive sensibility for military personnel.

OBJECTIVE: This preregistered randomized controlled trial tested the effects of a four-session, online interoceptive awareness intervention relative to an active comparator, matched for time and attention on interoception and suicidal ideation. METHOD: Participants (N = 195; 69% male; mean age = 37) were active duty service members (62%) and veterans (38%) who completed measures of interoceptive sensibility, interoceptive accuracy, and suicidal ideation at baseline. They were randomized to either the interoceptive awareness intervention, Reconnecting to Internal Sensations and Experiences (RISE), or the comparator, Healthy Habits. Participants completed the assessment battery again at posttest as well as a 1 and 3-month follow-up. RESULTS: RISE was rated as acceptable and demonstrated excellent feasibility per completion rates (85% completed all four modules). RISE improved the majority of interoceptive sensibility domains assessed (noticing body sensations, not worrying about sensations of pain or discomfort, emotional awareness, self-regulation, body listening, and body trust), and most of these gains remained at 1 and 3-month follow-ups. There were no differences between conditions on suicidal ideation, perhaps due to the low levels of ideation reported, or interoceptive accuracy. CONCLUSIONS: RISE is a disseminable, cost-effective, and transdiagnostic intervention that improves interoceptive sensibility up to 3 months.

Need for approval and antisocial behavior moderate the effect of socioemotional cues on adolescent girls' cognitive control.

To examine whether need for approval (NFA) and antisocial behavior (ASB) moderate the effects of socioemotional stimuli on cognitive control, 88 girls (Mage  = 16.31 years; SD = 0.84; 65.9% White) completed a socioemotional Go/No-go and questionnaires. At high approach NFA, girls responded more slowly during appetitive than control (b = -8.80, p < .01) and aversive (b = -5.58, p = .01) trials. At high ASB, girls responded more slowly (b = -6.12, p = .02) and less accurately (OR = 1.11, p = .03) during appetitive than aversive trials; at low ASB, girls responded more slowly during aversive than control trials (b = -4.42, p = .04). Thus, both context and individual differences influence adolescents' cognitive control.

Relationships between eating disorder symptoms, muscle dysmorphia symptoms, and suicidal ideation: A random intercepts cross-lagged panel approach.

OBJECTIVE: Eating disorder (ED) symptoms correlate with suicidality; yet the strength of these relationships in men is unclear. Muscle dysmorphia (MD) symptoms may reflect a more accurate index of body-related concerns for men, as they better target muscularity concerns typical of men. However, no studies have tested a model in which ED/MD symptoms and suicidality are simultaneously examined. We longitudinally tested whether ED/MD symptoms were related to suicidal ideation among a community sample of men. METHODS: Men with MD symptoms (N = 272) were recruited to complete three surveys over 6 weeks. A random intercepts cross-lagged panel model tested predictive associations between ED/MD symptoms and suicidal ideation, while disaggregating between/within-person variance. RESULTS: ED/MD symptoms were significantly associated with suicidal ideation at the between-subjects level (ED: b = .04; MD: b = .09) and showed significant within-wave covariances with suicidal ideation (ED: b = .02-.04; MD: b = .02-.05). Those who experienced increases in ED symptoms showed increased suicidal ideation at the next wave (b = .32). Those who experienced increases in suicidal ideation showed increases in MD symptoms at the next wave (b = .85). DISCUSSION: Results highlight ED symptoms as a potential risk factor for suicidal ideation among men. Further, suicidal ideation predicted MD symptoms. ED symptoms may create intra- and interpersonal distress predicting suicidal ideation. Suicidal ideation may lead to muscle-building behaviors to cope with suicidal thoughts. Clinicians should assess for suicidal ideation among men at risk for MD/EDs, and for MD symptoms among those reporting suicidal ideation. PUBLIC SIGNIFICANCE: Eating disorder (ED) symptoms are related to suicidality, but these relationships are understudied among men. Since men report concerns surrounding muscularity, muscle dysmorphia (MD) may be a better ED index for this population. However, little research has investigated relationships between ED symptoms, MD symptoms, and suicidality among men. This study investigated relationships between ED/MD symptoms and suicidality among 272 men. Results may inform clinical assessment, treatment, and classification of MD.

Within-person reciprocal associations between peer victimization and need for approval.

Prior research links need for approval (NFA; the extent to which self-worth is contingent on peer approval or disapproval) to critical developmental outcomes, but little is known about how NFA develops over time or within social contexts. To address this gap, the present study used a sophisticated analytic approach (autoregressive latent trajectory modeling with standardized residuals) to examine dynamic associations between one salient social experience-peer victimization-and two dimensions of NFA, conceptualized in terms of approach motivation (NFAapproach; enhanced self-worth based on peer approval) and avoidance motivation (NFAavoid; depleted self-worth based on peer disapproval). Following 636 youth (338 girls; Mage = 7.96 years at Wave 1; 66.7% White; 35.0% subsidized school lunch) from second to seventh grade, analyses revealed that peer victimization predicts subsequent increases in NFAavoid, which in turn predicts subsequent increases in victimization. Findings also revealed that although mean levels of NFAavoid decrease during childhood, increases or decreases in NFA become more entrenched. Thus, childhood peer victimization may disrupt normative decreases in NFAavoid and contribute to a cycle in which negative peer judgments increasingly foster low self-worth and further peer difficulties. Preventing this cycle may require encouraging peer-victimized youth to base their self-worth on internal standards rather than peer feedback while helping them develop positive relationships that promote self-worth. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Does social withdrawal inhibit defending bullied peers and do perceived injunctive norms mitigate those effects?

Although a number of social-cognitive and contextual correlates of defending against bullying have been identified, research on the personality traits associated with defending have yielded weak and inconsistent results. The current study provided a novel examination as to whether a tendency toward social withdrawal is associated with less frequent defending and whether perceived injunctive norms for defending and aggression minimize the impact of social withdrawal on defending behaviors. A sample of 1,564 children (760 girls; Mage = 10.05; 55.0% White; 36.1% Black) were followed in the fall, winter, and spring of a school year. Defending was measured with self-reports and peer-reports. Social withdrawal was measured using teacher-reports. Perceived injunctive norms were estimated by calculating within-person correlations between participants' ratings of peers' popularity and defending and between peers' popularity and aggression. Results revealed that social withdrawal was associated with less peer-reported defending in the fall, and this effect was sustained over the school year. For boys, lower levels of social withdrawal in the fall were associated with less peer-reported defending when they viewed popular peers as unlikely to defend. A temporary (i.e., fall) association was found between viewing defenders as popular and self-reported defending, and children became less likely to self-report defending over the school year if they viewed popular children as aggressive. These findings underscore the need to examine how temperamental traits and perceived contextual norms cocontribute to bystanders' behavior when witnessing bullying. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Emotion mindsets and depressive symptoms in adolescence: The role of emotion regulation competence.

Recent theories posit that emotion mindsets (i.e., the extent to which individuals believe emotions are malleable or fixed) play a crucial role in experiences of emotion and influence emotion regulation (ER) processes. Drawing from mindset theory, this study examined the hypothesis that fixed emotion mindsets (FEMs) would predict depressive symptoms via compromised ER competence in adolescence, a period when many first episodes of depression occur. Results supported these hypotheses across two studies assessing participants in midadolescence (ages 14-18; M age = 16.17) and late adolescence (ages 18-21; M age = 18.52). Using a comprehensive approach to assessing ER, results demonstrated that FEMs were associated with less voluntary engagement and more disengagement and emotion dysregulation. In turn, higher voluntary engagement was associated with lower depressive symptoms, whereas higher disengagement and emotion dysregulation were associated with higher depressive symptoms. These findings highlight that one understudied pathway from FEMs to depressive symptoms may be the manner in which individuals respond to their emotions, implicating emotion mindsets as one target for efforts to improve clinical outcomes during adolescence. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Test of a deviance regulation theory intervention among first-year college student drinkers: Differential effects via frequency and quantity norms.

OBJECTIVE: First-time-in-college (FTIC) students are relatively inexperienced with alcohol and have pressure to assimilate to new norms, and, therefore, are at a heightened risk of alcohol-related consequences. The present study investigates the use of a brief deviance regulation theory (DRT) intervention to increase the use of protective behavioral strategies (PBS) among FTIC students. METHOD: Participation took place completely online. Participants were first-year college students (n = 147, Mage = 18.11, 77.68% female) at a large southwest U.S. university. Participants were randomly assigned one of three conditions: (a) a positive message about individuals who use PBS, (b) a negative message about individuals who do not use PBS, or (c) an assessment-only control group. Participants then completed weekly assessments for 5 weeks, examining alcohol use and consequences, PBS use, and perceived PBS norms. Contrasting previous research, the present study investigated weekly effects of the intervention. In addition, norm type (quantity vs. frequency) was examined as moderators of intervention messaging. RESULTS: Across conditions, both quantity and frequency norms increased over time. The positive message produced immediate and lasting effects on SLD PBS among those with higher (+ 1 SD) frequency norms. The intervention effects for the negative message, using the quantity norm, grew across time on all PBS. CONCLUSIONS: These results provide initial support for the use of a DRT prevention program for FTIC students. Negative messages may promote long-term PBS use, while positive messages may be most effective in addressing immediate and lasting changes in the use of alcohol protective strategies. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Replication studies of critical findings from the peer literature: An introduction.

Despite its importance, replication has remained in the background of social development research. The aim of this special section was to elucidate and elevate the role of replication in peer relations research, examining its challenges and its utility for moving the field forward. To accomplish this aim, five sets of researchers undertook identifying an important finding from a widely cited article in the peer literature and tried to replicate its basic results using new data. As a group, the resulting five articles cover a broad range of topics, measures, and methods that are seen in peer research. Four of the five articles provide evidence of replication. This evidence was seen more for basic principles or processes observed in earlier studies than for exact or specific findings. In addition, the authors used varied approaches to replication, highlighting the need to embrace diverse methods when attempting to replicate complicated mechanisms of social development. It is argued that replication efforts should be aimed at identifying basic principles and processes of social development while clarifying the parameters that account for variability across studies in the specific findings. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

From social withdrawal to depression: A quasireplication and extension of Boivin, Hymel, and Bukowski (1995).

Tenets of the Boivin et al. (1995) social process model were reexamined with two longitudinal samples using both the original and contemporary analytic strategies. Study goals included reconstructing (e.g., quasireplicating) Boivin et al.'s (1995) original findings and evaluating hypothesized relations across both comparable and longer developmental epochs. Samples included 491 children (245 girls, Mage = 10.0; 80.1% White;19.1% low-, 43.1% middle- or higher-income) followed from grades 4 to 12 and 272 children (148 girls, Mage = 9.61; 84.2% White; 8.2% low-, 17.1% middle-, 74.7% upper middle to higher-income) followed from grades 4 to 5. The assumption that social withdrawal instigates a cascade of within-person changes in the quality of peer relationships, sense of loneliness and social dissatisfaction, and depression was evaluated using Boivin et al.'s (1995) original regression strategy plus two variants of cross-lagged panel models (classical CLPM; Latent Curve Model with Structured Residuals [LCM-SR]). Unlike classical CLPM, LCM-SR allowed for isolating within-person changes and testing hypothesized predictors of within-person increases and decreases. Results differed by type of analysis. Regression and classical CLPM yielded greater substantiation for some of the processes stipulated by Boivin et al. (1995). LCM-SR results, however, called into question the assumption of a cascade effect of early social withdrawal and the reliance on traditional regression and CLPM analyses to test for presumed predictors of within person change. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Peer victimization and well-being as a function of same-ethnicity classmates and classroom social norms: Revisiting person × environment mismatch theory.

Person × Environment mismatch theory has been applied to understanding how the classroom social ecology moderates associations between peer victimization and socioemotional well-being. In 2004, Bellmore et al. applied this theory to the ethnic composition and social climate of the classroom. The current study tested whether their findings replicate with a slightly younger, rural sample from the Southeastern United States, whether associations held longitudinally, and whether child ethnicity moderated effects. Participants were 4th-grade and 5th-grade students from 13 elementary schools (N = 1,448; Mage = 10.13 years; 701 girls; 37.9% Black, 4.40% Latina/o, 57.7% White). Measures included peer-reports of peer victimization, teacher-reports of loneliness, social withdrawal, and anxiety, and self-reports of prosocial peer treatment. Classroom social disorder was assessed using teacher-reports of aggressive behavior and peer victimization. Evidence that having a large percentage of same-ethnicity peers amplifies peer victimization-adjustment linkages was limited. Although the exact nature of identified interactive effects somewhat varied from Bellmore et al., findings similarly underscored the benefits of low social disorder and ethnically diverse classrooms. Together, these findings point to a need to understand the proximal sociostructural impact of ecological factors when studying the consequences of peer victimization. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Bystanders in bullying: Introduction to the special issue.

Bullying is a problem in most, if not all, contemporary schools around the world and is associated with socioemotional, academic, and physical difficulties for not only the victims of bullying, but also the youth who engage in bullying (Beran et al., 2008; Hawker & Boulton, 2000) and bystanders (Janosz et al., 2008; Juvonen et al., 2003). As the actions of bystanders contribute to the deterrence or maintenance of bullying (Salmivalli, 2010), it is critical to understand those factors that lead bystanders' to either protect the victim or facilitate the bullying. To this end, the articles in this special issue provide novel insights into bystanders of bullying, building upon emerging themes in the literature. This introduction summarizes the contributions of each article, focusing on three themes: (a) the process-oriented nature of the decision to defend victims or reinforce the aggressors, (b) the need to differentiate qualitatively different forms of defending, and (c) the role of classroom and societal norms in bystanders' behaviors. This introduction concludes with a call for a next generation of studies that integrates the lines of research presented in this special issue.

Protecting Youth Against the Adverse Effects of Peer Victimization: Why Do Parents Matter?

Exposure to peer victimization is associated with a variety of adverse outcomes but there is individual variability in its effects, suggesting the need to identify why some youth are resilient in the face of victimization. This research examined whether (a) high-quality parent-child relationships protect youth against the effects of peer victimization on psychopathology (antisocial behavior and depressive symptoms); and (b) mitigation of social risks (deviant peer group affiliation and social helplessness) accounts for the protective effects of high-quality parent-child relationships. Youths (N = 636; 338 girls, 298 boys; Mage in 5th grade = 10.94; SD = 0.36) and their teachers completed survey measures at three annual waves across the transition to middle school (5th - 7th grade). Path analyses indicated that high-quality parent-child relationships attenuated the effects of pre-transition victimization on post-transition antisocial behavior, depressive symptoms, and social risks, with some effects differing by gender. As predicted, results suggested that the protective effect against antisocial behavior may operate through mitigated deviant peer group affiliation. This research identifies one key protective factor that contributes to resilience among victimized youth and suggests the importance of incorporating parental support into prevention programs for victimized youth.

Predicting the development of pro-bullying bystander behavior: A short-term longitudinal analysis.

Pro-bullying bystander behavior is a key socio-contextual factor underlying the perpetuation of bullying, yet investigators know relatively little as to what contributes to its development. The current study uses a short-term longitudinal design to identify child characteristics and relationship qualities that predict pro-bullying bystander behavior over the course of one school year. Participants were 484 children (239 girls; Mage = 10.25 years). Children completed self-report measures of pro-bullying bystander behavior, empathy, moral disengagement, and perceived norms for defending, and peer-report measures of peer victimization and popularity. Main effects of fall empathy and moral disengagement emerged in the prediction of spring pro-bullying bystander behavior, although the latter just for boys. At low levels of perceived norms for defending, high levels of popularity and, for girls, high levels of peer victimization predicted heightened pro-bullying bystander behavior. Thus, anti-bullying efforts may benefit from targeting these social-cognitive and relational processes predictive of pro-bullying bystander behavior and fostering group norms that mitigate these risks.

Children's peer beliefs, friendlessness, and friendship quality: Reciprocal influences and contributions to internalizing symptoms.

Children's peer beliefs have been shown to mediate the link between stress experienced within the peer group and later internalizing symptoms. This study extends this research by examining bidirectional associations between children's peer beliefs, friendlessness, and perceived friendship quality (i.e., receiving provision, negative treatment) and identifying indirect pathways to internalizing symptoms. Participants (N = 366; Mage = 9.34 years, SD = .07; 196 girls) reported on their peer beliefs, classroom friendships, friendship quality, and internalizing symptoms at 3 time points across 1 calendar year. Receiving provision from friends predicted less negative peer beliefs. Negative peer beliefs predicted less received provisions from friends and higher levels of negative treatment, and, in turn, negative treatment from friends predicted higher levels of internalizing symptoms. These findings provide novel insights into how perceptions of the peer group relate to dyad-level relationship processes, including the potential contribution of peer beliefs to children's peer adjustment. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Allocation of attention to scenes of peer harassment: Visual-cognitive moderators of the link between peer victimization and aggression.

As approximately one-third of peer-victimized children evidence heightened aggression (Schwartz, Proctor, & Chien, 2001), it is imperative to identify the circumstances under which victimization and aggression co-develop. The current study explored two potential moderators of victimization-aggression linkages: (a) attentional bias toward cues signaling threat and (b) attentional bais toward cues communicating interpersonal support. Seventy-two fifth- and sixth-grade children (34 boys; Mage = 11.67) were eye tracked while watching video clips of bullying. Each scene included a bully, a victim, a reinforcer, and a defender. Children's victimization was measured using peer, parent, and teacher reports. Aggression was measured using peer reports of overt and relational aggression and teacher reports of aggression. Victimization was associated with greater aggression at high levels of attention to the bully. Victimization was also associated with greater aggression at low attention to the defender for boys, but at high attention to the defender for girls. Attention to the victim was negatively correlated with aggression regardless of victimization history. Thus, attentional biases to social cues integral to the bullying context differentiate whether victimization is linked to aggression, necessitating future research on the development of these biases and concurrent trajectories of sociobehavioral development.

Suicidality Disclosed Online: Using a Simulated Facebook Task to Identify Predictors of Support Giving to Friends at Risk of Self-harm.

Although peer support in response to online disclosures of suicidality may be imperative for suicide prevention efforts, little is known as to how often support is provided or what predicts giving support. This study addresses this issue by investigating the odds of providing peer support in response to simulated online disclosures of suicidality. While interacting with a simulated Facebook newsfeed, participants (N = 690, Mage  = 20.24, 527 female) were given the opportunity to leave comments on two posts disclosing low, moderate, or severe risk for suicide. Participants also completed questionnaires on their symptoms of depression and anxiety, experience with a loved one's suicidality, and Facebook use strategies. Only 33.6% of participants left a positive, supportive comment on at least one of the two suicide posts. Content severity, experience with a loved one's suicide attempts, and use of Facebook to meet people were predictive of providing positive comments. These findings suggest that young adults vary in their propensity to provide support after encountering a suicide disclosure online and that giving support is driven by a combination of contextual and intrapersonal factors.

A randomized control trial of a deviance regulation theory intervention to increase alcohol protective strategies.

OBJECTIVE: Normative feedback remains an effective approach to reducing alcohol use among college students. However, this approach is difficult to extend to protective behavioral strategies (PBS), which are proximal to alcohol-related problems. Deviance regulation theory (DRT) is a social psychology theory that posits individuals engage in behaviors to standout out in positive ways or avoid standing out in negative ways. The current study tests a DRT-based randomized control trial. METHOD: College student drinkers (n = 130) reported on PBS norm frequency, alcohol use, and PBS use. They were then randomly assigned to receive a positive message about PBS users, a negative message about non-PBS users, or a control. They reported on weekly PBS use, alcohol use, and alcohol problems for 10 weeks. RESULTS: Consistent with DRT, there were immediate postintervention effects on PBS use for individuals who believed PBS was uncommon and who also received a positive message. This remained stable across time. There was significant growth in PBS use among individuals who received a negative message and who believed PBS use was common. The intervention was not directly associated with alcohol use or problems. However, PBS use was associated with average alcohol use and lower weekly and global alcohol problems. CONCLUSIONS: This study shows that a DRT intervention may increase PBS use. This may translate into lower alcohol use and fewer alcohol-related problems. The results also identify conditions under which positive and negative messages are indicated. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved).

An exploratory analysis of the joint contribution of HPA axis activation and motivation to early adolescent depressive symptoms.

This study examines the interactive contribution of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and approach-avoidance motivation systems to longitudinal changes in depressive symptoms across the adolescent transition. In the summer prior to, or fall of, 4th grade, 132 youth (68 girls; 64 boys; M age = 9.46 years) participated in a social challenge task and reported on their depressive symptoms. In the winter of 6th grade, youth completed a semi-structured interview of depression and a self-report measure of approach-avoidance motivations. Analyses revealed two profiles of risk for adolescent depressive symptoms, with some gender differences: (1) excessive disengagement, reflected in HPA underactivation along with low approach motivation or high avoidance motivation; and (2) excessive engagement, reflected in HPA overactivation along with high approach motivation. This research highlights the importance of a multi-system perspective on development, suggesting that the implications of HPA dysregulation for depressive symptoms are contingent on adolescents' tendencies toward approach versus avoidance.

Visual Attention to Dynamic Scenes of Ambiguous Provocation and Children's Aggressive Behavior.

Research on biases in attention related to children's aggression has yielded mixed results. Some research suggests that inattention to social cues and reliance on maladaptive social schemas underlie aggression. Other research suggests that maladaptive social schemas lead aggressive individuals to attend to nonhostile cues. The primary objective of this study was to test the proposition that aggression is related to delayed attention to cues followed by selective attention to nonhostile cues after the provocation has occurred. A second objective was to test whether these biases are associated with aggression only when children hold negative social schemas. The eye fixations of 70 children (34 boys, 36 girls; Mage = 11.71 years) were monitored with an eye tracker as they watched video clips of child actors portraying scenes of ambiguous provocation. Aggression was measured using peer-, teacher-, and parent-reports, and children completed a measure of antisocial and prosocial peer beliefs. Aggressive behavior was associated with greater time until fixation on the provocateur among youth who held antisocial peer beliefs. Aggression was also associated with greater time until fixation on an actor displaying empathy for the victim among children reporting low levels of prosocial peer beliefs. After the provocation, aggression was associated with suppressed attention to an amused peer among children who held negative peer beliefs. Increasing attention to cues in a scene of ambiguous provocation, in conjunction with fostering more positive beliefs about peers, may be effective in reducing hostile responding among aggressive youth.