The effect of pH, dilution, and temperature on the viscosity of ocular lubricants--shift in rheological parameters and potential clinical significance.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the effect of temperature, dilution, and pH on the viscosity of ocular lubricants. DESIGN: Laboratory based investigation of viscosity. PARTICIPANTS: No human subjects. METHODS: Hypromellose 0.3%, sodium hyaluronate 0.4%, carboxymethylcellulose sodium 0.5%/glycerin 0.9%, and carmellose sodium 0.5% were investigated. Ostwald capillary viscometers were utilised for viscosity measurements. The kinematic viscosity of each lubricant was tested quantitatively from 22 to 40 °C, and over a pH range of 5-8 under isothermal conditions. The kinematic viscosity of each eye drop was also tested under dilution by varying the mass fraction of each eye drop under isothermal conditions. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: Changes in kinematic viscosity. RESULTS: Hypromellose 0.3% had an initial pH of 8.34, while the other lubricants had a pH close to neutral. From 22 to 35 °C, the kinematic viscosity of sodium hyaluronate 0.4 fell by 36% from 37.8 to 24.4 mm(2)/s, carboxymethylcellulose sodium 0.5%/glycerin 0.9% fell by 35% from 16.98 to 11.1 mm(2)/s, hypromellose fell by 37% from 6.89 to 3.69 mm(2)/s, and carmellose sodium 0.5% fell by 25% from 2.77 to 1.87 mm(2)/s. At 32 °C only sodium hyaluronate 0.4%, and carboxymethylcellulose sodium 0.5%/glycerin 0.9% retained sufficient kinematic viscosity to maintain precorneal residence. Kinematic viscosities of all the topical lubricants were unaffected by pH but decreased significantly with dilution. CONCLUSIONS: This study suggests that currently used ocular lubricants have limited bioavailability due to reductions in viscosity by temperature and dilutional changes under physiological conditions. Developing lubricants with stable viscosities may maximise therapeutic efficacy.

The speed of sound and derived thermodynamic properties of pure water at temperatures between (253 and 473) K and at pressures up to 400 MPa.

The speed of sound in high-purity water has been measured in the temperature range (253 to 473) K at pressures up to 400 MPa. The experimental technique used was based on a double-path pulse-echo method with a single 5-MHz ultrasound transducer placed between two unequally spaced reflectors. The cell was calibrated in water at T = 298.15 K and p = 1 MPa against the speed of sound given by the 1995 equation-of-state formulation of the International Association for the Properties of Water and Steam (IAPWS-95) which, for that state point, has an uncertainty of 0.005%. Corrections for the effects of temperature and pressure on the path length difference are considered in detail. The estimated expanded relative uncertainty of the speed of sound determined in this work is shown to be between 0.03% and 0.04% at a confidence level of 95%. The density and isobaric specific heat capacity of water have been obtained in the temperature range (253.15 to 473.15) K at pressure up to 400 MPa by thermodynamic integration of the sound-speed data subject to initial values computed from IAPWS-95 on the isobar at p = 0.1 MPa. The speed of sound, density, and isobaric specific heat capacity were compared with IAPWS-95 with corresponding absolute relative deviations within 0.3%, 0.03%, and 1%, respectively at T ≥ 273.15 K and p ≤ 400 MPa; larger deviations, especially for heat capacity, were found at lower temperatures. The results imply that the uncertainties of properties computed from IAPWS-95 may be significantly reduced over the major part of the region investigated in this work.

Design of a laboratory for experiments with a pulsed neutron source.

We present the results of a neutron shielding design and optimisation study performed to reduce the exposure to radiological doses arising from a 14 MeV pulsed neutron generator (PNG) having a maximum emission strength of 2.0 x 10(8) neutrons s(-1). The source was intended to be used in a new irradiation facility for the realisation of an experiment on acoustical cavitation in liquids. This paper describes in detail how the facility was designed to reduce both neutron and gamma-ray dose rates to acceptable levels, taking into account the ALARP principle in following the steps of optimisation. In particular, this work compares two different methods of optimisation to assess neutron dose rates: the use of analytical methods and the use of Monte Carlo simulations (MCNPX 2.4). The activation of the surrounding materials during operation was estimated using the neutron spectra as input to the FISPACT 3.0 code. The limitations of a first-order analytical model to determine the neutron activation levels are highlighted. The impact that activation has on the choice of the materials to be used inside the laboratory and on the waiting time before anyone can safely enter the room after the neutron source is switched off is also discussed.