How weird is the development of children's gratitude in the United States? Cross-cultural comparisons.

Our interest is in the development of gratitude as a moral virtue, and its variability across different cultural contexts. Given psychology's overreliance on samples collected from the United Sates, Western Europe, and Australasia, we contrasted patterns of age-related expressions of gratitude among a sample of U.S. 7- to 14-year-old children with those from same-age samples from Brazil, China, Russia, South Korea, and Turkey (N = 2,540, 54.7% female, Mage = 10.61 years). The U.S. sample was diverse (n = 730: Black 26.4%, White 40.4%, Latinx 19.9%, Asian 3.8%, Other 1.6%, Missing 7.0%; 55.7% female, Mage = 10.52 years). The remaining samples were largely homogeneous by ethnicity. Our data were gathered using one quantitative scale to measure variations in the extent of gratitude that children expressed, and one qualitative measure to assess variability in the types of gratitude expressed by children of different ages. Both measures were chosen for their fit with the definition of virtuous gratitude. Hypotheses that the U.S. sample would differ from the others in extent and type of gratitude were largely supported. However, age-related differences in the type of gratitude expressed were similar across societies (e.g., in most samples older children were less likely to express concrete gratitude and more likely to express connective gratitude). Our results reveal the importance of treating gratitude as a virtue that develops during childhood and that is influenced by one's cultural group. Reliance on samples from a limited set of cultures is thus to be avoided. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Technologizing Bronfenbrenner: Neo-ecological Theory.

We propose an adaptation of Urie Bronfenbrenner's bioecological theory, neo-ecological theory. As bioecological theory was developed in the 20th century, it requires significant modifications to reflect some of the most ubiquitous contexts in which adolescents learn, play, and grow-the technological and virtual ones. Although several scholars have developed laudable theories related to youth development in virtual contexts, the field lacks an overarching theory to address the intersection of development and technology. In developing neo-ecological theory, we hold true to the tenets of bioecological theory, but suggest key modifications to reflect our technologized world. We delineate a key alteration to the microsystem, namely the existence of two types of microsystems-physical and virtual. In addition, we emphasize the importance of macrosystemic influences (i.e., the influences of culture and within-society subcultural variation) in understanding development in the digital age. The implications of these modifications cascade across the Process-Person-Context-Time (PPCT) model; proximal processes, person characteristics, context, and time are all reexamined. In the digital age, virtual microsystems are central contexts in which youth engage in proximal processes. As such, we believe that all scholars of development, regardless of their specific research interests, should consider the ways digital contexts influence their outcomes of interest. Without it, practitioners, policy makers, parents, and technologists will be in the dark about how best to support adolescents.

Wishes and gratitude of students from private and public schools / Os Desejos e a gratidão de estudantes do ensino público e privado / Deseos y agradecimiento de estudiantes de enseñanza pública y privada

We examined social class (measured by attendance in public or private schools), gender, and age-related variations in the expression of wishes and gratitude of 430 7- to 14-year-olds (181 male, 62.1% from public schools). Chi-square analysis indicated that students from private schools expressed significantly more social-oriented wishes and connective gratitude, whereas those from public schools expressed significantly more self-oriented wishes. Girls in the public schools expressed significantly more self-oriented wishes and verbal gratitude than did boys. Regression analysis (curve estimation) indicated that verbal gratitude, self- and social oriented wishes increased and concrete gratitude decreased significantly with age, but connective gratitude tended to increase. These findings support the idea that gratitude and wish types involve the development of cognitive aspects, such as taking others into account and thinking about the future, but it is also influenced by the social contexts in which children live, such as their social class.

Foram examinadas variações na expressão de desejos e gratidão de 430 participantes (7 a 14 anos) de acordo com classe social (ensino público ou privado), gênero e idade (181 meninos, 62.1% da escola pública). Análises de Qui-quadrado indicaram que estudantes da escola privada expressaram mais desejos orientados para os outros e gratidão conectiva enquanto os da escola pública expressaram mais desejos orientados para si. As meninas na escola pública expressaram mais desejos voltados para si e gratidão verbal do que os meninos. As análises de regressão (estimação de curva) indicaram que gratidão verbal, desejos para si e para os outros aumentaram, e gratidão concreta diminuiu com a idade. A gratidão conectiva tendeu a aumentar. Esses resultados apoiam a ideia de que os tipos de desejos e gratidão envolvem o desenvolvimento cognitivo (levar em conta os outros e uma perspectiva futura), mas também são influenciados pelos contextos sociais (classe social).

Fueron examinadas variaciones en la expresión de deseos y agradecimientos de 430 estudiantes (7a14 años) con relación a la clase social (enseñanza pública o privada), sexo y edad (181 niños, 62,1% de escuelas públicas). Análisis de Chi-cuadrado indicaron que estudiantes de escuelas privadas expresaron más deseos orientados hacia los otros y agradecimiento conjuntivo, mientras que los de escuelas públicas expresaron más deseos enfocados hacia su propio bienestar. Las niñas de escuelas públicas expresaron más deseos de bienestar propio y agradecimiento verbal que los niños. Los análisis de regresión (estimación de curva) indicaron que el agradecimiento verbal, los deseos para sí y para los demás aumentaron, la gratitud concreta disminuyó con la edad, mientras que el agradecimiento conjuntivo tendió a aumentar. Estos resultados apoyan la idea de que los tipos de deseos y agradecimiento involucran el desarrollo cognitivo (tener en cuenta a los otros es una perspectiva futura), pero también están influenciados por el contexto social (clase social).

Wishes and Gratitude of Students from Private and Public Schools / Os Desejos e a Gratidão de Estudantes do Ensino Público e Privado / Deseos y Agradecimiento de Estudiantes de Enseñanza Pública y Privada

We examined social class (measured by attendance in public or private schools), gender, and age-related variations in the expression of wishes and gratitude of 430 7- to 14-year-olds (181 male, 62.1% from public schools). Chi-square analysis indicated that students from private schools expressed significantly more social-oriented wishes and connective gratitude, whereas those from public schools expressed significantly more self-oriented wishes. Girls in the public schools expressed significantly more self-oriented wishes and verbal gratitude than did boys. Regression analysis (curve estimation) indicated that verbal gratitude, self- and social oriented wishes increased and concrete gratitude decreased significantly with age, but connective gratitude tended to increase. These findings support the idea that gratitude and wish types involve the development of cognitive aspects, such as taking others into account and thinking about the future, but it is also influenced by the social contexts in which children live, such as their social class.

Foram examinadas variações na expressão de desejos e gratidão de 430 participantes (7 a 14 anos) de acordo com classe social (ensino público ou privado), gênero e idade (181 meninos, 62.1% da escola pública). Análises de Qui-quadrado indicaram que estudantes da escola privada expressaram mais desejos orientados para os outros e gratidão conectiva enquanto os da escola pública expressaram mais desejos orientados para si. As meninas na escola pública expressaram mais desejos voltados para si e gratidão verbal do que os meninos. As análises de regressão (estimação de curva) indicaram que gratidão verbal, desejos para si e para os outros aumentaram, e gratidão concreta diminuiu com a idade. A gratidão conectiva tendeu a aumentar. Esses resultados apoiam a ideia de que os tipos de desejos e gratidão envolvem o desenvolvimento cognitivo (levar em conta os outros e uma perspectiva futura), mas também são influenciados pelos contextos sociais (classe social).

Fueron examinadas variaciones en la expresión de deseos y agradecimientos de 430 estudiantes (7a14 años) con relación a la clase social (enseñanza pública o privada), sexo y edad (181 niños, 62,1% de escuelas públicas). Análisis de Chi-cuadrado indicaron que estudiantes de escuelas privadas expresaron más deseos orientados hacia los otros y agradecimiento conjuntivo, mientras que los de escuelas públicas expresaron más deseos enfocados hacia su propio bienestar. Las niñas de escuelas públicas expresaron más deseos de bienestar propio y agradecimiento verbal que los niños. Los análisis de regresión (estimación de curva) indicaron que el agradecimiento verbal, los deseos para sí y para los demás aumentaron, la gratitud concreta disminuyó con la edad, mientras que el agradecimiento conjuntivo tendió a aumentar. Estos resultados apoyan la idea de que los tipos de deseos y agradecimiento involucran el desarrollo cognitivo (tener en cuenta a los otros es una perspectiva futura), pero también están influenciados por el contexto social (clase social).

Práticas educativas parentais, problemas de comportamento e competência social de crianças em idade pré-escolar / Parental child-rearing practices, behavior problems and pre-school children's social competence

O estudo investigou a relação das práticas educativas parentais, problemas de comportamento e a competência social de crianças pré-escolares. Participaram 48 mães e 33 pais, cujos primogênitos tinham seis anos de idade, que responderam a uma entrevista sobre práticas educativas e ao Sistema de Avaliação das Competências Sociais, o qual também avalia problemas de comportamento. Correlações de Spearman revelaram associações positivas entre práticas coercitivas maternas e problemas de comportamento infantil, especialmente os de externalização. Foram encontradas correlações positivas entre práticas coercitivas paternas e problemas de internalização, bem como entre as práticas indutivas e de não interferência paternas com a cooperação e a assertividade infantil, respectivamente. Mães de meninas referiram mais comportamentos de autocontrole e a competência social do que mães de meninos, enquanto aquelas de NSE baixo relataram mais práticas coercitivas e as de NSE alto, mais as indutivas. Os achados indicaram que as práticas indutivas paternas associaram-se com aspectos da competência social, enquanto as práticas coercitivas maternas e paternas aos problemas de comportamento infantil.

The study examined associations between parents' childrearing practices, behavior problems and pre-school children's social competence. A total of 48 mothers and 33 fathers, when their firstborn children were aged six, completed an interview about child-rearing practices and the Social Skills Rating System that also assesses behavior problems. Spearman correlations indicated positive associations between maternal coercive practices and children's behavior problems, especially those related to externalizing. Positive correlations were also found between fathers' coercive practices and internalizing problems, as well as among fathers' inductive and non-interference practices with children's cooperation and assertiveness, respectively. Girls' mothers reported higher levels of self-control and social competence than did boys' mothers. Moreover, lower SES mothers referred more coercive practices while higher SES mothers reported more inductive practices. Findings underscore the relationship between fathers' inductive practices and children's social competence. In addition, results suggested associations among both mothers' and fathers' coercive practices and children's behavior problems.

Práticas educativas parentais, problemas de comportamento e competência social de crianças em idade pré-escolar / Parental child-rearing practices, behavior problems and pre-school children's social competence

O estudo investigou a relação das práticas educativas parentais, problemas de comportamento e a competência social de crianças pré-escolares. Participaram 48 mães e 33 pais, cujos primogênitos tinham seis anos de idade, que responderam a uma entrevista sobre práticas educativas e ao Sistema de Avaliação das Competências Sociais, o qual também avalia problemas de comportamento. Correlações de Spearman revelaram associações positivas entre práticas coercitivas maternas e problemas de comportamento infantil, especialmente os de externalização. Foram encontradas correlações positivas entre práticas coercitivas paternas e problemas de internalização, bem como entre as práticas indutivas e de não interferência paternas com a cooperação e a assertividade infantil, respectivamente. Mães de meninas referiram mais comportamentos de autocontrole e a competência social do que mães de meninos, enquanto aquelas de NSE baixo relataram mais práticas coercitivas e as de NSE alto, mais as indutivas. Os achados indicaram que as práticas indutivas paternas associaram-se com aspectos da competência social, enquanto as práticas coercitivas maternas e paternas aos problemas de comportamento infantil.(AU)

The study examined associations between parents' childrearing practices, behavior problems and pre-school children's social competence. A total of 48 mothers and 33 fathers, when their firstborn children were aged six, completed an interview about child-rearing practices and the Social Skills Rating System that also assesses behavior problems. Spearman correlations indicated positive associations between maternal coercive practices and children's behavior problems, especially those related to externalizing. Positive correlations were also found between fathers' coercive practices and internalizing problems, as well as among fathers' inductive and non-interference practices with children's cooperation and assertiveness, respectively. Girls' mothers reported higher levels of self-control and social competence than did boys' mothers. Moreover, lower SES mothers referred more coercive practices while higher SES mothers reported more inductive practices. Findings underscore the relationship between fathers' inductive practices and children's social competence. In addition, results suggested associations among both mothers' and fathers' coercive practices and children's behavior problems.(AU)

Práticas educativas maternas e paternas aos 24 e aos 72 meses de vida da criança / Child-rearing practices of mothers and fathers with 24- and 72-month-old children

Este estudo investigou as práticas educativas indutivas, coercitivas e de não interferência maternas e paternas aos 24 e 72 meses de vida da criança. Participaram 24 mães e pais de um único filho/a, que responderam uma entrevista para avaliação dessas práticas. Análises estatísticas revelaram que as mães foram significativamente mais indutivas que os pais aos 24 meses, mas aos 72 meses não houve diferenças. Enfatiza-se que as mães tendem a conversar mais com seus filhos/as, expressar sentimentos, opiniões, estabelecer limites e elogiar comportamentos adequados. As mães também apresentaram médias mais elevadas no total de práticas relatadas, o que pode ser explicado pelo papel predominante que ainda exercem na socialização infantil, embora os pais venham participando mais da educação dos filhos/as.

The present study investigated mothers' and fathers' inductive, coercive and non-interference child-rearing practices with 24- and 72-month-old children. Twenty-four mothers and fathers with an only child were interviewed about their child-rearing practices. Statistical analyses revealed that the mothers described significantly more inductive practices than did the fathers at 24 months, but at 72 months there were no differences. These results indicate that the mothers talked, expressed feelings and opinions, established limits and praised appropriate behaviors more with their children. The mothers, on average, also used a greater total of child-rearing practices than did fathers, which can be explained by the predominant role that they still exercise in the children's socialization, although fathers are participating more in their children's education.

Práticas educativas maternas e paternas aos 24 e aos 72 meses de vida da criança / Child-rearing practices of mothers and fathers with 24- and 72-month-old children

Este estudo investigou as práticas educativas indutivas, coercitivas e de não interferência maternas e paternas aos 24 e 72 meses de vida da criança. Participaram 24 mães e pais de um único filho/a, que responderam uma entrevista para avaliação dessas práticas. Análises estatísticas revelaram que as mães foram significativamente mais indutivas que os pais aos 24 meses, mas aos 72 meses não houve diferenças. Enfatiza-se que as mães tendem a conversar mais com seus filhos/as, expressar sentimentos, opiniões, estabelecer limites e elogiar comportamentos adequados. As mães também apresentaram médias mais elevadas no total de práticas relatadas, o que pode ser explicado pelo papel predominante que ainda exercem na socialização infantil, embora os pais venham participando mais da educação dos filhos/as.(AU)

The present study investigated mothers' and fathers' inductive, coercive and non-interference child-rearing practices with 24- and 72-month-old children. Twenty-four mothers and fathers with an only child were interviewed about their child-rearing practices. Statistical analyses revealed that the mothers described significantly more inductive practices than did the fathers at 24 months, but at 72 months there were no differences. These results indicate that the mothers talked, expressed feelings and opinions, established limits and praised appropriate behaviors more with their children. The mothers, on average, also used a greater total of child-rearing practices than did fathers, which can be explained by the predominant role that they still exercise in the children's socialization, although fathers are participating more in their children's education.(AU)

Estabilidade e mudança nas práticas educativas maternas e paternas ao longo dos anos pré-escolares da criança / Stability and changes in mothers and fathers' child-rearing practices along child's pre-school years

O presente estudo teve como objetivo examinar a estabilidade e mudança nas práticas educativas maternas e paternas, em particular o uso de práticas indutivas, coercitivas e de não interferência aos 24, 36 e 72 meses de vida da criança. Participaram 24 mães e pais que tinham um único filho e residiam na região metropolitana de Porto Alegre. Quando as crianças completaram 24 e 72 meses de vida, os participantes responderam a uma entrevista para a avaliação das práticas educativas. Já aos 36 meses, as famílias foram observadas durante o almoço, quando as práticas educativas também foram investigadas. ANOVAs de medidas repetidas indicaram diferenças quanto às práticas indutivas maternas entre os 24 e 36 meses, bem como entre as práticas de não interferência entre os 24 e 36 meses e também entre os 36 e 72 meses. Quanto aos pais, as diferenças foram encontradas entre as práticas indutivas aos 24 e 72 meses e entre as práticas de não interferência aos 24 e 36 meses e aos 36 e 72 meses. Os resultados sugerem que tanto estabilidade quanto mudanças estão presentes nas práticas educativas parentais ao longo do desenvolvimento da criança. Isto pode estar associado ao fato de que à medida que ela cresce, expectativas e comportamentos parentais acabam sendo adaptados às novas habilidades e demandas infantis.

The present study had as its main objective to examine stability and change in mothers and fathers' childrearing practices, in particular the use of inductive, coercive and non-interference practices with 24, 36 and 72 month-old children. Twenty four mothers and fathers who had an only child and lived in the metropolitan area of Porto Alegre/RS participated in the study. When the children were 24 and 72 months old, the participants were interviewed about their child-rearing practices. When the children were 36 months old, they and their families were observed during lunch time, with focus on child-rearing practices. Repeated measures of ANOVA indicated differences in maternal inductive practices between 24 and 36 months old and differences in non-interference practices both between 24 and 36 as well as 36 and 72 months old. Concerning the fathers, differences were found between inductive practices at 24 and 72 months old and among non-interference practices at 24 and 36 months old as well as at 36 and 72 months old. The results suggest that both stability and change are found in parents' child-rearing practices over the course of children's development. Changes are related to the fact that parents' expectations and behaviors reflect their children's new abilities and demands.

Estabilidade e mudança nas práticas educativas maternas e paternas ao longo dos anos pré-escolares da criança / Stability and changes in mothers and fathers' child-rearing practices along child's pre-school years

O presente estudo teve como objetivo examinar a estabilidade e mudança nas práticas educativas maternas e paternas, em particular o uso de práticas indutivas, coercitivas e de não interferência aos 24, 36 e 72 meses de vida da criança. Participaram 24 mães e pais que tinham um único filho e residiam na região metropolitana de Porto Alegre. Quando as crianças completaram 24 e 72 meses de vida, os participantes responderam a uma entrevista para a avaliação das práticas educativas. Já aos 36 meses, as famílias foram observadas durante o almoço, quando as práticas educativas também foram investigadas. ANOVAs de medidas repetidas indicaram diferenças quanto às práticas indutivas maternas entre os 24 e 36 meses, bem como entre as práticas de não interferência entre os 24 e 36 meses e também entre os 36 e 72 meses. Quanto aos pais, as diferenças foram encontradas entre as práticas indutivas aos 24 e 72 meses e entre as práticas de não interferência aos 24 e 36 meses e aos 36 e 72 meses. Os resultados sugerem que tanto estabilidade quanto mudanças estão presentes nas práticas educativas parentais ao longo do desenvolvimento da criança. Isto pode estar associado ao fato de que à medida que ela cresce, expectativas e comportamentos parentais acabam sendo adaptados às novas habilidades e demandas infantis.(AU)

The present study had as its main objective to examine stability and change in mothers and fathers' childrearing practices, in particular the use of inductive, coercive and non-interference practices with 24, 36 and 72 month-old children. Twenty four mothers and fathers who had an only child and lived in the metropolitan area of Porto Alegre/RS participated in the study. When the children were 24 and 72 months old, the participants were interviewed about their child-rearing practices. When the children were 36 months old, they and their families were observed during lunch time, with focus on child-rearing practices. Repeated measures of ANOVA indicated differences in maternal inductive practices between 24 and 36 months old and differences in non-interference practices both between 24 and 36 as well as 36 and 72 months old. Concerning the fathers, differences were found between inductive practices at 24 and 72 months old and among non-interference practices at 24 and 36 months old as well as at 36 and 72 months old. The results suggest that both stability and change are found in parents' child-rearing practices over the course of children's development. Changes are related to the fact that parents' expectations and behaviors reflect their children's new abilities and demands.(AU)

A window into different cultural worlds: young children's everyday activities in the United States, Brazil, and Kenya.

A powerful means to understand young children's normative development in context is to examine their everyday activities. The daily activities of 79 children (3 years old) were observed, for 20 hr each, in their usual settings. Children were selected from 4 cultural groups: European American and African American (Greensboro, United States), Luo (Kisumu, Kenya), and European descent (Porto Alegre, Brazil), evenly divided by social class. Examining children's naturally occurring engagement in school-relevant activities, both in and out of child care, revealed the importance of ecological context. The variation in activities was not explainable simply by cultural group (including race within the United States) or social class, but by the intersection of culture and class. The developmental implications of these findings are discussed.