Profiles of Latinx cultural orientation among adolescents: Associations with internalizing symptoms and moderation by ethnic-racial discrimination.

INTRODUCTION: The objectives of the current study were the following: (1) to explore multidimensional profiles of Latinx cultural orientation using Spanish language use, familismo, and ethnic-racial identity (ERI) affirmation among Latinx adolescents, (2) to test how Latinx cultural orientation profiles were associated with adolescents' internalizing symptoms (i.e., depressive symptoms and anxiety symptoms), and (3) to test whether associations between profiles and internalizing symptoms were moderated by adolescents' ethnic-racial discrimination experiences. METHODS: The study was conducted among a sample of 204 Latinx adolescents (52.4% female; Mage = 14.35, SDage = 1.75). RESULTS: Latent profile analysis indicated four profiles of Latinx cultural orientation: higher affirmation and lower Spanish (HALS), higher Spanish (HS), lower familismo and affirmation (LFA), and higher familismo/lower Spanish and affirmation (HFLSA). Latinx adolescents who reported lower levels on more than one Latinx cultural orientation dimension (e.g. LFA or HFSLA) also reported worse health when compared to adolescents who reported higher levels of more than one Latinx cultural orientation dimension (e.g., HSA). The associations between Latinx cultural orientation profiles and internalizing symptoms were not moderated by adolescents' ethnic-racial discrimination. CONCLUSION: Findings provide researchers and practitioners with an understanding of the various ways in which Latinx adolescents remain connected to their Latinx culture and implications for their outcomes.

Online Racial Discrimination, Suicidal Ideation, and Traumatic Stress in a National Sample of Black Adolescents.

Importance: Because of increased suicide rates among Black youth in the past 2 decades, there is a dire need for research on suicidal ideation and risk factors in this population. Objective: To examine the direct and indirect associations between online racial discrimination and suicidal ideation through posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms among Black adolescents living in the US, with consideration of potential differential associations by gender and age. Design, Setting, and Participants: This cross-sectional study used data drawn from the first wave of the National Survey of Critical Digital Literacy. Black adolescents aged 11 to 19 years were selected from a nationally representative probability-based sample. Data were collected from October 2020 to December 2020 and analyzed from August 2021 to October 2021. Main Outcomes and Measures: Hypotheses of the current study were formulated during research design and grounded in empirical literature. The individual online racial discrimination subscale (Online Victimization Scale), the UCLA Child/Adolescent posttraumatic stress disorder Reaction Index for DSM-5, and an item from the second edition of the Children's Depression Inventory were used to assess constructs. Mediation was assessed through mediation models with path analyses using structural equation modeling. Results: Among a total 525 participants, 265 were girls (50.5%) and 251 were boys (47.8%); the mean (SD) age was 14.8 (2.5) years. Findings from structural equation modeling analysis indicated that individual online racial discrimination was associated with posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms (ß = 0.49, SE = 0.06, P < .001), and posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms were associated with suicidal ideation (ß = 0.51, SE = 0.06, P < .001). Posttraumatic stress disorder was identified as a full mediator between online racial discrimination and suicide (ß = 0.25, SE = 0.04, P < .001). No differences by gender or age were found. Furthermore, no significant direct association between online racial discrimination and suicidal ideation was found. Conclusions and Relevance: This study found an association between individual online racial discrimination and posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms and between posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms and suicidal ideation. These risk factors are important to consider in continuing studies of the cause of suicidal ideation for Black adolescents in the US.

Exposure to Online Racial Discrimination and Traumatic Events Online in Black Adolescents and Emerging Adults.

Online racial discrimination and race-related traumatic events online have been linked to psychological distress in Black youth. The current study builds on extant literature by examining associations among online racial discrimination, traumatic events online, and trauma symptoms of discrimination, after controlling for gender identity and ethnic-racial setting of college in a sample of 245 Black youth. Additionally, this study examines the potential moderating effects of gender identity. This study is the first to examine the associations among online racial discrimination, traumatic events online, and trauma symptoms specific to racial discrimination. Path modeling revealed positive associations among online racial discrimination, traumatic events online, and trauma symptoms of discrimination. No significant differences in models were found by gender identity.

Anti-Black Structural Racism Goes Online: A Conceptual Model for Racial Health Disparities Research.

Anti-Black racism is an established social determinant of racial health disparities in the United States. Although the majority of research on racism examines in-person individual-level experiences, a majority of Americans engage online and may therefore be exposed to racism directly or indirectly in online contexts. Research suggests that the structural technological features of online contexts may be especially powerful in perpetuating and enacting racism, often in inconspicuous or automated ways. However, there is a paucity of literature that articulates how structural online racism may be an important catalyst for racial health disparities, despite emerging evidence of racism embedded in our technological infrastructures. Therefore, the purpose of this article is to articulate the basis for investigating online racism as a form of structural racism with growing implications for racial health disparities in the digital age. We first define the structural features of online settings that generate and reinforce inequities among racial groups in the United States. Next, we propose a conceptual model detailing potential mechanisms through which structural online racism may translate into racial health disparities. Finally, we discuss ways in which exposures to online racism could be measured in order to capture their structural nature. Implications and future directions for research on online racism as a form of structural racism and corresponding policy for the reduction of racial health disparities are highlighted.

Victimized in many ways: Online and offline bullying/harassment and perceived racial discrimination in diverse racial-ethnic minority adolescents.

Objectives: Racial-ethnic minority youth face multiple types of victimization associated with negative developmental outcomes. The present study examined the interplay of youth experiences of online and offline bullying/harassment and racial-ethnic discrimination across three waves. Methods: Racial-ethnic minority adolescents aged 10-19 (N = 735) at Midwest schools were surveyed yearly on Internet usage and experiences, mental well-being, and related risk and protective factors. We analyzed offline and online bullying/harassment, offline and online racial-ethnic discrimination, and time online in an autoregressive cross-lagged panel model. Results: Youth who reported more of one type of victimization also reported more of other victimization types and more time online concurrently. Our results show some (but not consistent) influences over time. Youth who experienced more offline bullying/harassment at wave 1 were more likely to report more wave 2 victimization in another context (online bullying/harassment) and in other content (offline racial-ethnic discrimination), although these associations did not appear in the second wave. Youth who reported more online bullying/harassment at wave 2 also experienced increased risk for offline bullying/harassment at wave 3. Youth who reported more time online were not more likely to experience later victimization, though youth who experienced more wave 1 offline bullying/harassment were more likely to report more next-wave time online. Conclusions: Racial-ethnic minority youth simultaneously and persistently face multiple types of victimization. Offline bullying/harassment interventions may have the added benefit of reducing other forms of victimization down the road, while reducing time online alone is unlikely to protect youth. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Liberatory Media Literacy as Protective Against Posttraumatic Stress for Emerging Adults of Color.

Emerging adults (i.e., age 18-25 years) of color in the United States are exposed to race/ethnicity-related traumatic events in online settings. Although an emerging literature documents the mental health consequences of such online exposures among adolescents, the association between these exposures and symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) remains understudied in emerging adults. Furthermore, little is known about strengths-based factors that may be protective for emerging adults of color faced with such exposures. The current study aimed to fill these gaps by examining the potential of liberatory media literacy (i.e., the ability to critically read, evaluate, support, and create media and technology that represents people of color in their full humanity) to ameliorate the association between exposure to traumatic events online and PTSD symptoms. Emerging adults of color (N = 325, Mage = 22.24, 56.0% male) were recruited to complete a self-report online survey that assessed exposure to race/ethnicity-related traumatic events in online settings, liberatory media literacy, and PTSD symptoms. The results of moderation analysis indicated that increased exposure to traumatic events online was associated with higher PTSD symptoms, ß = .22, and that the inclusive media and technology component of liberatory media literacy was protective in this association, ß = .19. However, these effects were small, f2 = .22-.23. The potential of liberatory media literacy as a strengths-based asset for emerging adults of color are discussed. Increasing inclusive media and technology skills may be an important target for intervention.

Exploration of bidirectionality in African American and Latinx adolescents' offline and online ethnic-racial discrimination.

OBJECTIVES: The objective of the present study was to examine longitudinal relations between adolescents' reports of offline (i.e., in-person) ethnic-racial discrimination and adolescents' reports of online ethnic-racial discrimination. METHOD: The study was conducted among a sample of 570 African American and Latinx adolescents (58% female; 10-18 years) over three waves of assessments occurring at yearly intervals. Autoregressive cross-lagged analyses examined potential bidirectional relations of offline ethnic-racial discrimination and online ethnic-racial discrimination. RESULTS: Results indicated that adolescents' more frequent experiences of offline ethnic-racial discrimination predicted more frequent experiences of online ethnic-racial discrimination across time, but that the opposite direction was not supported. CONCLUSIONS: Findings may be used to redefine current theoretical frameworks that assert the bidirectional nature of online and offline experiences, particularly in the domain of ethnic-racial discrimination. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Trajectories of Online Racial Discrimination and Psychological Functioning Among African American and Latino Adolescents.

This study investigated trajectories of individual and vicarious online racial discrimination (ORD) and their associations with psychological outcomes for African American and Latinx adolescents in 6th-12th grade (N = 522; Mgrade  = 9th) across three waves. Data were analyzed using growth mixture modeling to estimate trajectories for ORD and to determine the effects of each trajectory on Wave 3 depressive symptoms, anxiety, and self-esteem. Results showed four individual and three vicarious ORD trajectories, with the majority of participants starting out with low experiences and increasing over time. Older African American adolescents and people who spend more time online are at greatest risk for poor psychological functioning.

Daily multidimensional racial discrimination among Black U.S. American adolescents.

This study examined frequencies and psychological effects of daily racial discrimination experienced individually, vicariously, online, offline, and through teasing. Participants were 101 Black U.S. American adolescents for this ecological momentary assessment study that measured daily racial discrimination and 14-day depressive symptoms slopes. Confirmatory factor analyses specified subscales, t-test analyses compared subscale means, and hierarchical linear analyses tested associations between subscales and depressive symptoms slopes. Results showed that six subscales fit the data well: individual general, vicarious general, individual online, vicarious online, individual teasing, and vicarious teasing. Participants reported 5606 experiences of racial discrimination during the study and averaged 5.21 experiences per day across the six subscales. The two online subscales were more frequent than the offline subscales. Aside from online vicarious experiences, all subscales were positively associated with depressive symptoms slopes. Findings underscore the multidimensional, quotidian, and impactful nature of racial discrimination in the lives of Black adolescents in the U.S.

Race-Related Traumatic Events Online and Mental Health Among Adolescents of Color.

PURPOSE: Viral videos of the detainment of undocumented immigrants in cages and police killings of unarmed citizens are two of the most pressing traumatic events facing adolescents of color. However, little is known about whether these online experiences are linked to mental health outcomes. This study examines the association between exposure to such events online and mental health in a sample of African American and Latinx adolescents. METHODS: Data were collected from a national sample of 302 African American and Latinx adolescents aged 11-19 years. Participants reported their exposure to traumatic events online (TEO), depressive symptoms, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms, and other sociodemographics. Multiple regression analyses were conducted. RESULTS: Analyses indicated a significant association between TEO and both PTSD symptoms and depressive symptoms, indicating that more frequent experiences of TEO were associated with higher levels of PTSD symptoms and depressive symptoms. In addition, regression analyses further indicated that girls reported higher PTSD and depressive symptoms than boys. Latinx participants also reported increased depressive symptoms. CONCLUSIONS: This study extends recent research that suggests police killings, as well as viewing distressing news directed at members of one's own racial-ethnic group or those who share the same immigration status, are related to poor mental health outcomes. Researchers should also explore what protective factors may buffer youth against the outcomes typically associated with these events.

Virtual Environments, Online Racial Discrimination, and Adjustment among a Diverse, School-Based Sample of Adolescents.

Given the recent rise in online hate activity and the increased amount of time adolescents spend with media, more research is needed on their experiences with racial discrimination in virtual environments. This cross-sectional study examines the association between amount of time spent online, traditional and online racial discrimination and adolescent adjustment, including depressive symptoms, anxiety and externalizing behaviors. The study also explores the role that social identities, including race and gender, play in these associations. Online surveys were administered to 627 sixth through twelfth graders in K-8, middle and high schools. Multiple regression results revealed that discrimination online was associated with all three outcome variables. Additionally, a significant interaction between online discrimination by time online was found for externalizing behaviors indicating that increased time online and higher levels of online discrimination are associated with more problem behavior. This study highlights the need for clinicians, educational professionals and researchers to attend to race-related experiences online as well as in traditional environments.

Longitudinal Associations Between Cybervictimization and Mental Health Among U.S. Adolescents.

PURPOSE: An emerging body of literature suggests that victims of bullying report detrimental mental health outcomes, such as depression and anxiety. The purpose of this study was to explore the relationship between cybervictimization, depression, and anxiety among school-aged youth over a 3-year time frame. METHODS: Students in Grades 6 through 12 at the initial wave of the study responded to survey items designed to assess their online experiences, including cybervictimization and self-reported depression and anxiety at three separate time points, over a 3-year period. In total, 559 school-aged youth participated in the study. RESULTS: Results suggest a reciprocal relationship between cybervictimization and depression and cybervictimization and anxiety. More specifically, depression at Time 1 predicted cybervictimization at Time 2, depression at Time 2 predicted cybervictimization at Time 3, and cybervictimization at Time 1 predicted depression at Time 3. Additionally, cybervictimization at Time 1 predicted anxiety at Time 2, cybervictimization at Time 2 predicted anxiety at Time 3, and anxiety at Time 1 predicted cybervictimization at Time 2. CONCLUSIONS: Based on the findings from this study, cybervictimization, depression, and anxiety seem to have a reciprocal relationship. Therefore, educational and mental health professionals should consider interventions that address adolescents' online experiences, while supporting mental health and social and emotional learning.

Latino adolescents' perceived discrimination in online and offline settings: an examination of cultural risk and protective factors.

Guided by a risk and resilience framework, the current study examined the associations between Latino adolescents' (n = 219; Mage = 14.35; SD = 1.75) perceptions of ethnic discrimination in multiple settings (e.g., online, school) and several domains of adjustment (e.g., mental health, academic), and tested whether developmentally salient cultural assets (i.e., ethnic identity) directly promoted youth adjustment or moderated the negative impact of discrimination on adjustment. Each of the 3 ethnic identity components (i.e., exploration, resolution, affirmation) demonstrated evidence of promoting positive outcomes among Latino youth; furthermore, there was some evidence that the promotive effects of affirmation and resolution were significantly stronger for older versus younger adolescents. In addition, with the exception of experiences with discrimination from adults outside of the school setting, there was evidence of ethnic identity interacting with each type of discrimination to predict Latino adolescents' self-esteem, depressive symptoms, and externalizing problems. Findings suggest directions for future research and identify potential targets for intervention that may prove fruitful in programming efforts with Latino adolescents.

Online racial discrimination and the protective function of ethnic identity and self-esteem for African American adolescents.

A growing body of literature has shown that being victimized online is associated with poor mental health. Little is known about the factors that protect youth from the negative outcomes that may result from these victimization experiences, particularly those related to race. Using a risk and resilience framework, this study examined the protective function of ethnic identity and self-esteem among African Americans who experience online racial discrimination. For the sample of 125 adolescents, hierarchical regression results revealed that higher levels of ethnic identity and self-esteem significantly moderated the negative impact of online racial discrimination on anxiety levels. These findings show that ethnic identity and self-esteem can buffer the negative mental health outcomes associated with online racial discrimination, at least with respect to adolescents' anxiety. Findings from the current study have significant implications for adolescent adjustment given the increased time youth spend doing online activities.

Online racial discrimination and psychological adjustment among adolescents.

PURPOSE: To examine associations between individual and vicarious racial discrimination via the Internet and psychological adjustment. METHODS: This study was a cross-sectional survey using a school-based sample of adolescents. Two hundred sixty-four high school students aged 14-18 completed the online survey. RESULTS: Twenty percent of whites, 29% of African Americans and 42% of multiracials/other experienced individual discrimination and approximately 71% of African Americans and whites and 67% of multiracials witnessed discrimination experienced by same-race and cross-race peers. Hierarchical linear regressions revealed that individual racial discrimination was significantly related to depression and anxiety over and above offline measures. Vicarious discrimination was not related to psychological adjustment measures. CONCLUSIONS: Adolescents frequently experienced both individual and vicarious discrimination online. Consistent with offline studies, online racial discrimination was negatively associated with psychological functioning. This study highlights the need to address racial issues in Internet safety prevention.

Ethnic identity, intergroup contact, and outgroup orientation among diverse groups of adolescents on the Internet.

The relationship among adolescents' (N = 228) ethnic identity, outgroup orientation, and online intergroup experiences was examined across three groups: European Americans, ethnic minorities (i.e., Latino and African Americans), and multiracials. Similar to previous studies, ethnic minorities reported significantly higher ethnic identity than European Americans and multiracials. Although outgroup orientation did not differ among ethnic groups, European Americans reported that they had more online intergroup contact than the other ethnic groups; greater intergroup contact was also related to higher outgroup orientation for this group. These results show that ethnic identity remains stronger for ethnic minorities, but intergroup interaction has become a salient and influential aspect of the online experience for European Americans. Implications are drawn for understanding and improving online and offline intergroup relations.

Role taking in online "classrooms": what adolescents are learning about race and ethnicity.

Adolescents recruited from chat rooms were interviewed via instant messaging about their interracial and interethnic experiences online. The types of messages participants sent and received about race on the Internet were identified using thematic analysis. Of particular interest within these online exchanges was what and how participants learned about racial issues. Data revealed that racialized role taking--the adoption and enactment of race-related identities--was a primary means of learning about race in the online settings adolescents visited. Participants assumed these identities in 6 capacities: as sympathizers, advocates, discussants, witnesses, targets, and friends. In doing so, they learned a wide range of information from their interracial and interethnic interlocutors, including various cultural practices and belief systems, the consequences of racial prejudice, and the ways in which racial oppression affects the lives of people of color. Participants were also exposed to negative stereotypes and racial prejudice against their own and other ethnic groups online. Findings underscore the need to counter online racial prejudice and promote the more positive aspects of what adolescents learn about race and ethnicity online.