Policing Pot: State-Level Cannabis Arrests Increase Perceived Risks and Costs but Not Use.

Legal sanctions are purported to play a role in cannabis use and related consequences. General models of deterrence suggest that increases in arrests should decrease consumption by heightening perceptions of the negative consequences of use as well as the likelihood and severity of penalties. The present study examined if arrests resulting from cannabis possession relate to cannabis consumption, perceptions of use, and likelihood and severity of related penalties. Combining data from the National Survey on Drug Use and Health with the FBI Uniform Crime Report (2002-2013) allowed for the estimation of a series of fixed- effects models that compare rates of arrests and perceived risks of aggregate rates of self-reported use at the state-level over time. Forty-nine states reported data (N = 592 state-years). Cannabis-related arrest rates (ratio of possession arrests for state/state population times 1,000) ranged from 0.04 - 5.63. Increases in cannabis-related arrests were associated with heightened perceptions of risk from use (b = .80 [-.16, 1.8], p < .05); but this association was non-significant in the model omitting states that legalized recreational cannabis in 2012. Arrests related to greater perceptions of the severity of potential penalties, including community service (b = .54 [.24, .85], p < .05), probation (b = .85 [.44, 1.3], p < .001), and prison sentences (b = .25 [.02, .5], p < .05). Arrest rates were not associated with cannabis use (b = -.25 [-.52, .05], p > .05) or the proportion of new initiates (b = -.02 [-.08, .05], p > .05). We conclude that increased arrests are associated with perceptions of negative consequences and penalty but appear unrelated to actual use. This study highlights the need to re-examine the utility of punitive approaches to reduce the public health burden posed by substance use.

Packing cannabis, pouring alcohol: Validating a free-pack assessment among college students using cannabis.

Objective: Long-standing challenges in quantifying cannabis use make assessment difficult, potentially complicating attempts to minimize harm. Our study investigated how accurately undergraduates who use substances estimate amounts of alcohol through a behavioral pouring task. We also aimed to validate a free pack assessment in which participants similarly estimated amounts of cannabis. We further examined how estimations related to consequences and protective behavioral strategies (PBS). Methods: Participants completed a free pour task and a modified free "pack" task to measure out and estimate quantities of alcohol and cannabis, and self-reported use, problems, PBS, and social context (N = 264; Mage = 19.2, 67.10% Female, 46.20% White). Results: Both tasks indicated high rates of misestimating amounts. Over 80% of the sample misestimated alcohol and cannabis amounts by more than 10%. Students typically underestimated the actual amount of alcohol that they poured, but the trend was opposite for cannabis. Discrepancies in packing joints decreased as quantity-specific cannabis PBS increased, but increased with more frequent cannabis use. Both alcohol and cannabis PBS decreased their respective consumption and negative consequences. Conclusions: A considerable proportion of young adults inaccurately estimate quantities, which is related to negative outcomes. Discrepancies are associated with problems, and interventions may benefit from targeting improvements in accuracy to prevent future harms and enhance protective strategies for specific substance use methods. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Cannabis-induced oceanic boundlessness.

BACKGROUND: Despite tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)'s reputation for creating dramatic effects at high doses, empirical work rarely addresses cannabis's impact on subjective responses common to the tryptamine psychedelics. We focused on these effects because they have preceded and covaried with the therapeutic impact of psilocybin in previous work. AIMS: The current study examined if self-reported responses to cannabis products might parallel those found in clinical trials of psilocybin administration. We also investigated if measures of demographics and cannabis use might correlate with these responses. METHODS: Participants reported the subjective effect of their highest THC experience using 27 items that assess oceanic boundlessness, a correlate of mystical experiences. They also answered infrequency items and questions on demographics and cannabis consumption. RESULTS: In an effort to address concerns about replication, we divided respondents who passed infrequency items into two random samples. Self-reported "breakthrough" experiences were significantly greater than zero but significantly lower than those reported in randomized clinical trials of psilocybin (17-19% vs. 59%). Total scores covaried with perceived dosages of THC, but only in one sample. Heavier users of cannabis reported lower scores. CONCLUSIONS: Self-report data suggest that high doses of cannabis can create subjective effects comparable to those identified in trials of psilocybin that precede relief from cancer-related distress, treatment-resistant depression, alcohol problems, and cigarette dependence. Given the disparate mechanisms of action, comparing THC-induced to psilocybin-induced effects might improve our understanding of the mechanisms underlying subjective experiences. This work might also support the development of a cannabis-assisted psychotherapy comparable to psilocybin-assisted psychotherapy.

Factor analysis of a short form of the Protective Behavioral Strategies for Marijuana scale.

OBJECTIVE: The Protective Behavioral Strategies for Marijuana Scale (PBSM), a 17-item scale targeting strategies for mitigating the negative consequences of cannabis use, highlights a range of behaviors that can reduce harm beyond straightforward decreases in quantity or frequency. The 17-item scale's factor structure remains under-examined but could reveal meaningful distinctions among strategies. This study aimed to confirm the factor structure of the short form of the PBSM. METHODS: This study recruited cannabis-using undergraduates (N = 454,Mage = 19.6, 68.8% female, 39% White), who reported using cannabis approximately 2.3 days per week with mild cannabis-related consequences (CAPQ; M = 9.74). RESULTS: A confirmatory factor analysis demonstrated poor fit for the one-factor model of the PBSM, prompting an exploratory factor analysis. Analyses revealed two internally reliable factors: a "Quantity" factor, strategies specific to mitigating overuse and limiting amounts consumed and an "Context" factor loosely related to troubles with others. This two-factor model accounted for over half of the total variance; invariance testing indicated reduced fit as models became more restrictive. Though each of the factors covaried negatively with both days of use and problems, Context had a stronger relation to both variables compared to Quantity. Only Context predicted fewer cannabis problems and use. CONCLUSIONS: The two-factor solution suggests further work on the psychometric properties of the scale could provide heuristic information to allow for more nuanced approaches in clinical and research settings. Theoretically, each factor might have novel links to some constructs but not others in ways that could assist harm-reduction strategies and treatment.

Age-Related Differences in Cannabis Product Use.

Cannabis use varies with age and gender, but less is known regarding specific product choices. Previous work suggests that older adults are inclined to stick to the more "classic" and familiar, while "novel" products are more likely to appeal to younger populations. We examined cross-sectional, retrospective data to determine whether the type of cannabis products used varied according to participant age (N = 1406, 71.3% female). The extensive list of products included: loose flower, pre-rolled joints, edibles, concentrates, oil vaporizers (vape pens), dry vaporizers, tinctures, topicals, and ingestible oils. Overall, rates of use for cannabis-infused ingestible oils, topicals, and tinctures are the lowest and show no age or gender-related differences. In contrast, the use of pre-rolled joints, vape pens, and edibles tends to decrease with age. Loose flower and dry vaporizer use also decrease with age, although less consistently. These age-related differences in product choices can facilitate prevention and treatment efforts toward specific populations. While harm-reduction efforts targeting loose flower and edible products would benefit all age groups, those targeting concentrates might focus only on younger users. On the other hand, learning about concentrates might be beneficial for older medical users due to their larger THC doses and rapid onset.

Confirming Savoring's Link to Fewer Cannabis Problems.

Savoring has covaried inversely with cannabis problems and moderated the association between cannabis use and negative consequences related to use. Research has not yet addressed the acceptability of savoring interventions for cannabis users. The present study aimed to replicate the finding of savoring as a protective factor against problems for cannabis users. The second aim of the study was to examine preferences for a savoring intervention among problem-endorsing cannabis users. We sampled 447 (63.3% female) problem users who self-reported cannabis use, cannabis problems, savoring beliefs, and preferences for cannabis use interventions. On average, our sample reported using cannabis 4.7 days per week and 16.03 times per month, with men endorsing significantly more cannabis-related problems than women. Savoring did increase as problems decreased, but the moderator effect did not replicate. Problem cannabis users preferred a savoring intervention to a typical harm reduction intervention across all sampled demographics, with one notable exception: women were 1.73 times more likely to prefer a savoring intervention. Our findings confirmed that cannabis problems decrease as savoring increases and identified a preference for a savoring intervention among problem users.

Gender-based differential item functioning in the Cannabis-Associated Problems Questionnaire: A replication and extension.

BACKGROUND: Gender bias in measures of cannabis problems may differentially affect how men and women endorse items. This gender invariance might mask, exaggerate, or otherwise obscure true distinctions in experiences of cannabis consequences. METHODS: The Cannabis-Associated Problems Questionnaire (CAPQ), a measure of interpersonal deficits, occupational impairment, psychological issues, and physical side effects related to cannabis use, contained items with gender-based differential item functioning (DIF) in previous work-a finding we aim to replicate and extend (Lavender, Looby, & Earleywine, 2008). RESULTS: In a sample of 4053 cannabis users, gender differences were apparent in global scores on the CAPQ. A DIF analysis revealed two gender-biased items, including one identified previously. Removal of these items did not significantly alter the scale's relation to cannabis use. Gender differences on the CAPQ persisted after removal of the two problematic items, indicating true gender differences still exist in men and women's experiences of cannabis-related consequences. Gender appeared to significantly contribute to scores on the full CAPQ and the short-form of the CAPQ with biased item removed, even after controlling for indices of cannabis use. CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest that the CAPQ evidences less gender bias than previously thought, perhaps due to diminishing gender-based stereotypes. Future work might opt to use the short form of the CAPQ to minimize gender-based DIF. In addition, potential biases in measures of substance use problems deserve more attention.