Fast 3-D Imaging of Brain Organoids With a New Single-Objective Planar-Illumination Two-Photon Microscope.

Human inducible pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs) hold a large potential for disease modeling. hiPSC-derived human astrocyte and neuronal cultures permit investigations of neural signaling pathways with subcellular resolution. Combinatorial cultures, and three-dimensional (3-D) embryonic bodies (EBs) enlarge the scope of investigations to multi-cellular phenomena. The highest level of complexity, brain organoids that-in many aspects-recapitulate anatomical and functional features of the developing brain permit the study of developmental and morphological aspects of human disease. An ideal microscope for 3-D tissue imaging at these different scales would combine features from both confocal laser-scanning and light-sheet microscopes: a micrometric optical sectioning capacity and sub-micrometric spatial resolution, a large field of view and high frame rate, and a low degree of invasiveness, i.e., ideally, a better photon efficiency than that of a confocal microscope. In the present work, we describe such an instrument that uses planar two-photon (2P) excitation. Its particularity is that-unlike two- or three-lens light-sheet microscopes-it uses a single, low-magnification, high-numerical aperture objective for the generation and scanning of a virtual light sheet. The microscope builds on a modified Nipkow-Petrán spinning-disk scheme for achieving wide-field excitation. However, unlike the Yokogawa design that uses a tandem disk, our concept combines micro lenses, dichroic mirrors and detection pinholes on a single disk. This new design, advantageous for 2P excitation, circumvents problems arising with the tandem disk from the large wavelength difference between the infrared excitation light and visible fluorescence. 2P fluorescence excited by the light sheet is collected with the same objective and imaged onto a fast sCMOS camera. We demonstrate 3-D imaging of TO-PRO3-stained EBs and of brain organoids, uncleared and after rapid partial transparisation with triethanolamine formamide (RTF) and we compare the performance of our instrument to that of a confocal laser-scanning microscope (CLSM) having a similar numerical aperture. Our large-field 2P-spinning disk microscope permits one order of magnitude faster imaging, affords less photobleaching and permits better depth penetration than a confocal microscope with similar spatial resolution.

Rapid Morphological and Cytoskeletal Response to Microgravity in Human Primary Macrophages.

The FLUMIAS (Fluorescence-Microscopic Analyses System for Life-Cell-Imaging in Space) confocal laser spinning disk fluorescence microscope represents a new imaging capability for live cell imaging experiments on suborbital ballistic rocket missions. During the second pioneer mission of this microscope system on the TEXUS-54 suborbital rocket flight, we developed and performed a live imaging experiment with primary human macrophages. We simultaneously imaged four different cellular structures (nucleus, cytoplasm, lysosomes, actin cytoskeleton) by using four different live cell dyes (Nuclear Violet, Calcein, LysoBrite, SiR-actin) and laser wavelengths (405, 488, 561, and 642 nm), and investigated the cellular morphology in microgravity (10-4 to 10-5 g) over a period of about six minutes compared to 1 g controls. For live imaging of the cytoskeleton during spaceflight, we combined confocal laser microscopy with the SiR-actin probe, a fluorogenic silicon-rhodamine (SiR) conjugated jasplakinolide probe that binds to F-actin and displays minimal toxicity. We determined changes in 3D cell volume and surface, nuclear volume and in the actin cytoskeleton, which responded rapidly to the microgravity environment with a significant reduction of SiR-actin fluorescence after 4-19 s microgravity, and adapted subsequently until 126-151 s microgravity. We conclude that microgravity induces geometric cellular changes and rapid response and adaptation of the potential gravity-transducing cytoskeleton in primary human macrophages.

Real-Time 3D High-Resolution Microscopy of Human Cells on the International Space Station.

Here we report the successful first operation of FLUMIAS-DEA, a miniaturized high-resolution 3D fluorescence microscope on the International Space Station (ISS) by imaging two scientific samples in a temperature-constant system, one sample with fixed cells and one sample with living human cells. The FLUMIAS-DEA microscope combines features of a high-resolution 3D fluorescence microscope based on structured illumination microscope (SIM) technology with hardware designs to meet the requirements of a space instrument. We successfully demonstrated that the FLUMIAS technology was able to acquire, transmit, and store high-resolution 3D fluorescence images from fixed and living cells, allowing quantitative and dynamic analysis of subcellular structures, e.g., the cytoskeleton. The capability of real-time analysis methods on ISS will dramatically extend our knowledge about the dynamics of cellular reactions and adaptations to the space environment, which is not only an option, but a requirement of evidence-based medical risk assessment, monitoring and countermeasure development for exploration class missions.

Data-Driven Modeling of Intracellular Auxin Fluxes Indicates a Dominant Role of the ER in Controlling Nuclear Auxin Uptake.

In plants, the phytohormone auxin acts as a master regulator of developmental processes and environmental responses. The best characterized process in the auxin regulatory network occurs at the subcellular scale, wherein auxin mediates signal transduction into transcriptional programs by triggering the degradation of Aux/IAA transcriptional repressor proteins in the nucleus. However, whether and how auxin movement between the nucleus and the surrounding compartments is regulated remain elusive. Using a fluorescent auxin analog, we show that its diffusion into the nucleus is restricted. By combining mathematical modeling with time course assays on auxin-mediated nuclear signaling and quantitative phenotyping in single plant cell systems, we show that ER-to-nucleus auxin flux represents a major subcellular pathway to directly control nuclear auxin levels. Our findings propose that the homeostatically regulated auxin pool in the ER and ER-to-nucleus auxin fluxes underpin auxin-mediated downstream responses in plant cells.

Analysis of signal processing in vestibular circuits with a novel light-emitting diodes-based fluorescence microscope.

Optical visualization of neural network activity is limited by imaging system-dependent technical tradeoffs. To overcome these constraints, we have developed a powerful low-cost and flexible imaging system with high spectral variability and unique spatio-temporal precision for simultaneous optical recording and manipulation of neural activity of large cell groups. The system comprises eight high-power light-emitting diodes, a camera with a large metal-oxide-semiconductor sensor and a high numerical aperture water-dipping objective. It allows fast and precise control of excitation and simultaneous low noise imaging at high resolution. Adjustable apertures generated two independent areas of variable size and position for simultaneous optical activation and image capture. The experimental applicability of this system was explored in semi-isolated preparations of larval axolotl (Ambystoma mexicanum) with intact inner ear organs and central nervous circuits. Cyclic galvanic stimulation of semicircular canals together with glutamate- and γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA)-uncaging caused a corresponding modulation of Ca(2+) transients in central vestibular neurons. These experiments revealed specific cellular properties as well as synaptic interactions between excitatory and inhibitory inputs, responsible for spatio-temporal-specific sensory signal processing. Location-specific GABA-uncaging revealed a potent inhibitory shunt of vestibular nerve afferent input in the predominating population of tonic vestibular neurons, indicating a considerable impact of local and commissural inhibitory circuits on the processing of head/body motion-related signals. The discovery of these previously unknown properties of vestibular computations demonstrates the merits of our novel microscope system for experimental applications in the field of neurobiology.

Arc lamps and monochromators for fluorescence microscopy.

Fluorescence microscopy requires high photon-flux densities in the specimen plane. These intensities are only achieved by lasers, arc lamps, and, most recently, light-emitting diodes (LEDs). Lasers and LEDs, however, are restricted to a limited number of wavelength regions, whereas with arc lamps it is possible to select arbitrary wavelengths and wavelength regions. Moreover, the lower cost of arc lamps, compared with lasers, makes them the light source of choice for the majority of fluorescence microscopy applications. Recently, so-called white light lasers have become commercially available, but their photon fluxes--although sufficient for laser scanning applications--are still not high enough for applications where extended areas need to be illuminated. This article discusses arc lamps and the design and performance of an arc lamp-based illumination system for fluorescence microscopy that allows the user to choose any wavelength from ultraviolet (UV) to infrared. The system permits rapid switching speed between colors, while maintaining quite stable and homogenous emissions.

4D in in vivo 2-photon laser scanning fluorescence microscopy with sample motion in 6 degrees of freedom.

2-Photon laser scanning microscopy (TPLSM) is often used for chronic in vivo studies. Small deviations in the sample orientation, however, make comparison of three-dimensional image stacks taken at different time-points challenging. When analysing changes of three-dimensional structures over time (4D imaging) this fundamental problem is one of the main limitations when complex structures are studied repetitively. We used an upright two-photon microscope complemented with a software-controlled stage-rotation instead of a conventional stage for chronic in vivo imaging in the brain of transgenic mouse models of Alzheimer's disease. Before every session an optimal imaging condition was successfully created by aligning the surface of the cranial window perfectly perpendicular to the laser beam. Deviations in the sample orientation between consecutive imaging sessions could be eliminated which improves conditions for chronic in vivo studies.