Role of NaV1.7 in postganglionic sympathetic nerve function in human and guinea-pig arteries.

NaV1.7 plays a crucial role in inducing and conducting action potentials in pain-transducing sensory nociceptor fibres, suggesting that NaV1.7 blockers could be effective non-opioid analgesics. While SCN9A is expressed in both sensory and autonomic neurons, its functional role in the autonomic system remains less established. Our single neuron rt-PCR analysis revealed that 82% of sympathetic neurons isolated from guinea-pig stellate ganglia expressed NaV1.7 mRNA, with NaV1.3 being the only other tetrodotoxin-sensitive channel expressed in approximately 50% of neurons. We investigated the role of NaV1.7 in conducting action potentials in postganglionic sympathetic nerves and in the sympathetic adrenergic contractions of blood vessels using selective NaV1.7 inhibitors. Two highly selective NaV1.7 blockers, GNE8493 and PF 05089771, significantly inhibited postganglionic compound action potentials by approximately 70% (P < 0.01), with residual activity being blocked by the NaV1.3 inhibitor, ICA 121431. Electrical field stimulation (EFS) induced rapid contractions in guinea-pig isolated aorta, pulmonary arteries, and human isolated pulmonary arteries via stimulation of intrinsic nerves, which were inhibited by prazosin or the NaV1 blocker tetrodotoxin. Our results demonstrated that blocking NaV1.7 with GNE8493, PF 05089771, or ST2262 abolished or strongly inhibited sympathetic adrenergic responses in guinea-pigs and human vascular smooth muscle. These findings support the hypothesis that pharmacologically inhibiting NaV1.7 could potentially reduce sympathetic and parasympathetic function in specific vascular beds and airways. KEY POINTS: 82% of sympathetic neurons isolated from the stellate ganglion predominantly express NaV1.7 mRNA. NaV1.7 blockers inhibit action potential conduction in postganglionic sympathetic nerves. NaV1.7 blockade substantially inhibits sympathetic nerve-mediated adrenergic contractions in human and guinea-pig blood vessels. Pharmacologically blocking NaV1.7 profoundly affects sympathetic and parasympathetic responses in addition to sensory fibres, prompting exploration into the broader physiological consequences of NaV1.7 mutations on autonomic nerve activity.

Selective KCNQ2/3 Potassium Channel Opener ICA-069673 Inhibits Excitability in Mouse Vagal Sensory Neurons.

Heightened excitability of vagal sensory neurons in inflammatory visceral diseases contributes to unproductive and difficult-to-treat neuronally based symptoms such as visceral pain and dysfunction. Identification of targets and modulators capable of regulating the excitability of vagal sensory neurons may lead to novel therapeutic options. KCNQ1-KCNQ5 genes encode KV7.1-7.5 potassium channel α-subunits. Homotetrameric or heterotetrameric KV7.2-7.5 channels can generate the so-called M-current (IM) known to decrease the excitability of neurons including visceral sensory neurons. This study aimed to address the hypothesis that KV7.2/7.3 channels are key regulators of vagal sensory neuron excitability by evaluating the effects of KCNQ2/3-selective activator, ICA-069673, on IM in mouse nodose neurons and determining its effects on excitability and action potential firings using patch clamp technique. The results showed that ICA-069673 enhanced IM density, accelerated the activation, and delayed the deactivation of M-channels in a concentration-dependent manner. ICA-069673 negatively shifted the voltage-dependent activation of IM and increased the maximal conductance. Consistent with its effects on IM, ICA-069673 induced a marked hyperpolarization of resting potential and reduced the input resistance. The hyperpolarizing effect was more pronounced in partially depolarized neurons. Moreover, ICA-069673 caused a 3-fold increase in the minimal amount of depolarizing current needed to evoke an action potential, and significantly limited the action potential firings in response to sustained suprathreshold stimulations. ICA-069673 had no effect on membrane currents when Kcnq2 and Kcnq3 were deleted. These results indicate that opening KCNQ2/3-mediated M-channels is sufficient to suppress the excitability and enhance spike accommodation in vagal visceral sensory neurons. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: This study supports the hypothesis that selectively activating KCNQ2/3-mediated M-channels is sufficient to suppress the excitability and action potential firings in vagal sensory neurons. These results provide evidence in support of further investigations into the treatment of various visceral disorders that involve nociceptor hyperexcitability with selective KCNQ2/3 M-channel openers.

Direct activation of airway sensory C-fibers by SARS-CoV-2 S1 spike protein.

Respiratory viral infection can lead to activation of sensory afferent nerves as indicated by the consequential sore throat, sneezing, coughing, and reflex secretions. In addition to causing troubling symptoms, sensory nerve activation likely accelerates viral spreading. The mechanism how viruses activate sensory nerve terminals during infection is unknown. In this study, we investigate whether coronavirus spike protein activates sensory nerves terminating in the airways. We used isolated vagally-innervated mouse trachea-lung preparation for two-photon microscopy and extracellular electrophysiological recordings. Using two-photon Ca2+ imaging, we evaluated a total number of 786 vagal bronchopulmonary nerves in six experiments. Approximately 49% of the sensory fibers were activated by S1 protein (4 µg/mL intratracheally). Extracellular nerve recording showed the S1 protein evoked action potential discharge in sensory C-fibers; of 39 airway C-fibers (one fiber per mouse), 17 were activated. Additionally, Fura-2 Ca2+ imaging was performed on neurons dissociated from vagal sensory ganglia (n = 254 from 22 mice). The result showed that 63% of neurons responded to S1 protein. SARS-CoV-2 S1 protein can lead to direct activation of sensory C-fiber nerve terminals in the bronchopulmonary tract. Direct activation of C-fibers may contribute to coronavirus symptoms, and amplify viral spreading in a population.

Role of NaV 1.9 in inflammatory mediator-induced activation of mouse airway vagal C-fibres.

The influence of NaV 1.9 on inflammatory mediator-induced activation of airway vagal nodose C-fibres was evaluated by comparing responses in wild-type versus NaV 1.9-/- mice. A single-cell RT-PCR analysis indicated that virtually all nodose C-fibre neurons expressed NaV 1.9 (SCN11A) mRNA. Using extracellular electrophysiological recordings in an isolated vagally innervated mouse trachea-lung preparation, it was noted that mediators acting via G protein-coupled receptors (PAR2), or ionotropic receptors (P2×3) were 70-85% less effective in evoking action potential discharge in the absence of NaV 1.9. However, there was no difference in action potential discharge between wild-type and NaV 1.9-/- when the stimulus was a rapid punctate mechanical stimulus. An analysis of the passive and active properties of isolated nodose neurons revealed no difference between neurons from wild-type and NaV 1.9-/- mice, with the exception of a modest difference in the duration of the afterhyperpolarization. There was also no difference in the amount of current required to evoke action potentials (rheobase) or the action potential voltage threshold. The inward current evoked by the chemical mediator by a P2×3 agonist was the same in wild-type versus NaV 1.9-/- neurons. However, the current was sufficient to evoke action potential only in the wild-type neurons. The data support the speculation that NaV 1.9 could be an attractive therapeutic target for inflammatory airway disease by selectively inhibiting inflammatory mediator-associated vagal C-fibre activation. KEY POINTS: Inflammatory mediators were much less effective in activating the terminals of vagal airway C-fibres in mice lacking NaV 1.9. The active and passive properties of nodose neurons were the same between wild-type neurons and NaV 1.9-/- neurons. Nerves lacking NaV 1.9 responded, normally, with action potential discharge to rapid punctate mechanical stimulation of the terminals or the rapid stimulation of the cell bodies with inward current injections. NaV 1.9 channels could be an attractive target to selectively inhibit vagal nociceptive C-fibre activation evoked by inflammatory mediators without blocking the nerves' responses to the potentially hazardous stimuli associated with aspiration.

Ginger Constituent 6-Shogaol Attenuates Vincristine-Induced Activation of Mouse Gastroesophageal Vagal Afferent C-Fibers.

Chemotherapeutic agent-induced nausea and vomiting are the severe adverse effects that are induced by their stimulations on the peripheral and/or central emetic nerve pathways. Even though ginger has been widely used as an herbal medicine to treat emesis, mechanisms underlying its neuronal actions are still less clear. The present study aimed to determine the chemotherapeutic agent vincristine-induced effect on gastroesophageal vagal afferent nerve endings and the potential inhibitory role of ginger constituent 6-shogaol on such response. Two-photon neuron imaging studies were performed in ex vivo gastroesophageal-vagal preparations from Pirt-GCaMP6 transgenic mice. Vincristine was applied to the gastroesophageal vagal afferent nerve endings, and the evoked calcium influxes in their intact nodose ganglion neuron somas were recorded. The responsive nodose neuron population was first characterized, and the inhibitory effects of 5-HT3 antagonist palonosetron, TRPA1 antagonist HC-030031, and ginger constituent 6-shogaol were then determined. Vincristine application at gastroesophageal vagal afferent nerve endings elicited intensive calcium influxes in a sub-population of vagal ganglion neurons. These neurons were characterized by their positive responses to P2X2/3 receptor agonist α,ß-methylene ATP and TRPA1 agonist cinnamaldehyde, suggesting their nociceptive placodal nodose C-fiber neuron lineages. Pretreatment with TRPA1 selective blocker HC-030031 inhibited vincristine-induced calcium influxes in gastroesophageal nodose C-fiber neurons, indicating that TRPA1 played a functional role in mediating vincristine-induced activation response. Such inhibitory effect was comparable to that from 5-HT3 receptor antagonist palonosetron. Alternatively, pretreatment with ginger constituent 6-shogaol significantly attenuated vincristine-induced activation response. The present study provides new evidence that chemotherapeutic agent vincristine directly activates vagal nodose nociceptive C-fiber neurons at their peripheral nerve endings in the upper gastrointestinal tract. This activation response requires both TRPA1 and 5-HT3 receptors and can be attenuated by ginger constituent 6-shogaol.

Neural control of the lower airways: Role in cough and airway inflammatory disease.

Airway function is under constant neurophysiological control, in order to maximize airflow and gas exchange and to protect the airways from aspiration, damage, and infection. There are multiple sensory nerve subtypes, whose disparate functions provide a wide array of sensory information into the CNS. Activation of these subtypes triggers specific reflexes, including cough and alterations in autonomic efferent control of airway smooth muscle, secretory cells, and vasculature. Importantly, every aspect of these reflex arcs can be impacted and altered by local inflammation caused by chronic lung disease such as asthma, bronchitis, and infections. Excessive and inappropriate activity in sensory and autonomic nerves within the airways is thought to contribute to the morbidity and symptoms associated with lung disease.

KV 1/D-type potassium channels inhibit the excitability of bronchopulmonary vagal afferent nerves.

The KV 1/D-type potassium current (ID ) is an important determinant of neuronal excitability. This study explored whether and how ID channels regulate the activation of bronchopulmonary vagal afferent nerves. The single-neuron RT-PCR assay revealed that nearly all mouse bronchopulmonary nodose neurons expressed the transcripts of α-dendrotoxin (α-DTX)-sensitive, ID channel-forming KV 1.1, KV 1.2 and/or KV 1.6 α-subunits, with the expression of KV 1.6 being most prevalent. Patch-clamp recordings showed that ID , defined as the α-DTX-sensitive K+ current, activated at voltages slightly more negative than the resting membrane potential in lung-specific nodose neurons and displayed little inactivation at subthreshold voltages. Inhibition of ID channels by α-DTX depolarized the lung-specific nodose neurons and caused an increase in input resistance, decrease in rheobase, as well as increase in action potential number and firing frequency in response to suprathreshold current steps. Application of α-DTX to the lungs via trachea in the mouse ex vivo vagally innervated trachea-lungs preparation led to action potential discharges in nearly half of bronchopulmonary nodose afferent nerve fibres, including nodose C-fibres, as detected by the two-photon microscopic Ca2+ imaging technique and extracellular electrophysiological recordings. In conclusion, ID channels act as a critical brake on the activation of bronchopulmonary vagal afferent nerves by stabilizing the membrane potential, counterbalancing the subthreshold depolarization and promoting the adaptation of action potential firings. Down-regulation of ID channels, as occurs in various inflammatory diseases, may contribute to the enhanced C-fibre activity in airway diseases that are associated with excessive coughing, dyspnoea, and reflex bronchospasm and secretions. KEY POINTS: The α-dendrotoxin (α-DTX)-sensitive D-type K+ current (ID ) is an important determinant of neuronal excitability. Nearly all bronchopulmonary nodose afferent neurons in the mouse express ID and the transcripts of α-DTX-sensitive, ID channel-forming KV 1.1, KV 1.2 and/or KV 1.6 α-subunits. Inhibition of ID channels by α-DTX depolarizes the bronchopulmonary nodose neurons, reduces the minimal depolarizing current needed to evoke an action potential (AP) and increases AP number and AP firing frequency in response to suprathreshold stimulations. Application of α-DTX to the lungs ex vivo elicits AP discharges in about half of bronchopulmonary nodose C-fibre terminals. Our novel finding that ID channels act as a critical brake on the activation of bronchopulmonary vagal afferent nerves suggests that their down-regulation, as occurs in various inflammatory diseases, may contribute to the enhanced C-fibre activity in airway inflammation associated with excessive respiratory symptoms.

Role of NaV 1.7 in action potential conduction along human bronchial vagal afferent C-fibres.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to determine the role of NaV 1.7 in action potential conduction in C-fibres in the bronchial branches of the human vagus nerve. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH: Bronchial branches of the vagus nerve were dissected from human donor tissue. The C-wave of the electrically evoked compound action potential was quantified in the absence and presence of increasing concentrations of the selective NaV 1.7 blocking drugs, PF-05089771 and ST-2262, as well as the NaV 1.1, 1.2, and 1.3 blocking drug ICA121-431. The efficacy and potency of these inhibitors were compared to the standard NaV 1 blocker, tetrodotoxin. We then compared the relative potencies of the NaV 1 blockers in inhibiting the C-wave of the compound action potential, with their ability to inhibit parasympathetic cholinergic contraction of human isolated bronchi, a response previously shown to be strictly dependent on NaV 1.7 channels. KEY RESULTS: The selective NaV 1.7 blockers inhibited the C-wave of the compound action potential with potencies similar to that observed in the NaV 1.7 bronchial contractions assay. Using rt-PCR, we noted that NaV 1.7 mRNA was strongly expressed and transported down the vagus nerve bundles. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS: NaV 1.7 blockers can prevent action potential conduction in the majority of vagal C-fibres arising from human bronchi. Blockers of NaV 1.7 channels may therefore have value in inhibiting the responses to excessive airway C-fibre activation in inflammatory airway disease, responses that include coughing as well as reflex bronchoconstriction and secretions.

Capsaicin-Sensitive Vagal Afferent Nerve-Mediated Interoceptive Signals in the Esophagus.

Heartburn and non-cardiac chest pain are the predominant symptoms in many esophageal disorders, such as gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), non-erosive reflux disease (NERD), functional heartburn and chest pain, and eosinophilic esophagitis (EoE). At present, neuronal mechanisms underlying the process of interoceptive signals in the esophagus are still less clear. Noxious stimuli can activate a subpopulation of primary afferent neurons at their nerve terminals in the esophagus. The evoked action potentials are transmitted through both the spinal and vagal pathways to their central terminals, which synapse with the neurons in the central nervous system to induce esophageal nociception. Over the last few decades, progress has been made in our understanding on the peripheral and central neuronal mechanisms of esophageal nociception. In this review, we focus on the roles of capsaicin-sensitive vagal primary afferent nodose and jugular C-fiber neurons in processing nociceptive signals in the esophagus. We briefly compare their distinctive phenotypic features and functional responses to mechanical and chemical stimulations in the esophagus. Then, we summarize activation and/or sensitization effects of acid, inflammatory cells (eosinophils and mast cells), and mediators (ATP, 5-HT, bradykinin, adenosine, S1P) on these two nociceptive C-fiber subtypes. Lastly, we discuss the potential roles of capsaicin-sensitive esophageal afferent nerves in processing esophageal sensation and nociception. A better knowledge of the mechanism of nociceptive signal processes in primary afferent nerves in the esophagus will help to develop novel treatment approaches to relieve esophageal nociceptive symptoms, especially those that are refractory to proton pump inhibitors.

Deoxycholic acid activates and sensitizes vagal nociceptive afferent C-fibers in guinea pig esophagus.

Bile acid reflux in the esophagus plays a role in the pathogenesis of certain esophageal disorders, where it can induce esophageal pain and heartburn. The present study aimed to determine whether bile acid, deoxycholic acid (DCA), directly activates and sensitizes esophageal vagal nociceptive afferent C-fiber subtypes. DCA-elicited effects on vagal nodose and jugular neurons were studied by calcium imaging. Its effects on esophageal-labeled nodose and jugular neurons were then determined by patch-clamp recording. At nodose and jugular C-fiber nerve endings in the esophagus, DCA-evoked action potentials (APs) were compared by extracellular single-unit recordings in ex vivo esophageal-vagal preparations. DCA application induced calcium influxes in nodose and jugular neurons and elicited inward currents in esophageal-labeled nodose and jugular neurons. In the presence of DCA, the current densities elicited by capsaicin were enhanced in those labeled neurons. Consistently, DCA perfusion at nerve terminals in the esophagus evoked APs in about 50% of esophageal nodose and jugular C-fibers. In DCA-sensitive C-fibers, DCA perfusion also sensitized the fibers such that the subsequent response to capsaicin was amplified. Collectively, these results provide new evidence that DCA directly activates and sensitizes nociceptive nodose and jugular C-fibers in the esophagus. Such activation and sensitization effects may contribute to bile acid-induced esophageal nociceptive symptoms that are refractory to proton-pump inhibitor therapy.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Bile acid reflux in the esophagus can induce pain and heartburn in certain esophageal disorders, but the underlying neuronal mechanism is still unclear. The present study demonstrated that bile acid, deoxycholic acid (DCA), directly activates esophageal vagal afferent nodose and jugular nociceptive C-fibers and sensitizes their response to capsaicin. Such effects may contribute to bile acid-induced esophageal nociceptive symptoms that refractory to proton-pump inhibitors (PPIs) therapy.

Antitussive effects of NaV 1.7 blockade in Guinea pigs.

Our previous studies implicated the voltage-gated sodium channel subtype NaV 1.7 in the transmission of action potentials by the vagal afferent nerves regulating cough and thus identified this channel as a rational therapeutic target for antitussive therapy. But it is presently unclear whether a systemically administered small molecule inhibitor of NaV 1.7 conductance can achieve therapeutic benefit in the absence of side effects on cardiovascular function, gastrointestinal motility or respiration. To this end, we have evaluated the antitussive effects of the NaV 1.7 selective blocker Compound 801 administered systemically in awake guinea pigs or administered topically in anesthetized guinea pigs. We also evaluated the antitussive effects of ambroxol, a low affinity NaV blocker modestly selective for tetrodotoxin resistant NaV subtypes. Both Compound 801 and ambroxol dose-dependently inhibited action potential conduction in guinea pig vagus nerves (assessed by compound potential), with ambroxol nearly 100-fold less potent than the NaV 1.7 selective Compound 801 in this and other NaV 1.7-dependent guinea pig and human tissue-based assays. Both drugs also inhibited citric acid evoked coughing in awake or anesthetized guinea pigs, with potencies supportive of an NaV 1.7-dependent mechanism. Notably, however, the antitussive effects of systemically administered Compound 801 were accompanied by hypotension and respiratory depression. Given the antitussive effects of topically administered Compound 801, we speculate that the likely insurmountable side effects on blood pressure and respiratory drive associated with systemic dosing make topical formulations a viable and perhaps unavoidable therapeutic strategy for targeting NaV 1.7 in cough.

Acute activation of bronchopulmonary vagal nociceptors by type I interferons.

KEY POINTS: Type I interferon receptors are expressed by the majority of vagal C-fibre neurons innervating the respiratory tract Interferon alpha and beta acutely and directly activate vagal C-fibers in the airways. The interferon-induced activation of C-fibers occurs secondary to stimulation of type 1 interferon receptors Type 1 interferons may contribute to the symptoms as well as the spread of respiratory viral infections by causing coughing and other defensive reflexes associated with vagal C-fibre activation ABSTRACT: We evaluated the ability of type I interferons to acutely activate airway vagal afferent nerve terminals in mouse lungs. Using single cell RT-PCR of lung-specific vagal neurons we found that IFNAR1 and IFNAR2 were expressed in 70% of the TRPV1-positive neurons (a marker for vagal C-fibre neurons) and 44% of TRPV1-negative neurons. We employed an ex vivo vagal innervated mouse trachea-lung preparation to evaluate the effect of interferons in directly activating airway nerves. Utilizing 2-photon microscopy of the nodose ganglion neurons from Pirt-Cre;R26-GCaMP6s mice we found that applying IFNα or IFNß to the lungs acutely activated the majority of vagal afferent nerve terminals. When the type 1 interferon receptor, IFNAR1, was blocked with a blocking antibody the response to IFNß was largely inhibited. The type 2 interferon, IFNγ, also activated airway nerves and this was not inhibited by the IFNAR1 blocking antibody. The Janus kinase inhibitor GLPG0634 (1 µm) virtually abolished the nerve activation caused by IFNß. Consistent with the activation of vagal afferent C-fibers, infusing IFNß into the mouse trachea led to defensive breathing reflexes including apneas and gasping. These reflexes were prevented by pretreatment with an IFN type-1 receptor blocking antibody. Finally, using whole cell patch-clamp electrophysiology of lung-specific neurons we found that IFNß (1000 U ml-1 ) directly depolarized the membrane potential of isolated nodose neurons, in some cases beyond to action potential threshold. This acute non-genomic activation of vagal sensory nerve terminals by interferons may contribute to the incessant coughing that is a hallmark of respiratory viral infections.

Stimulus intensity-dependent recruitment of NaV1 subunits in action potential initiation in nerve terminals of vagal C-fibers innervating the esophagus.

We investigated voltage-gated sodium channel (NaV1) subunits that regulate action potential initiation in the nerve terminals of vagal nodose C-fibers innervating the esophagus. Extracellular single fiber recordings were made from the nodose C-fibers, with mechanically sensitive nerve terminals in the isolated innervated guinea pig esophagus. NaV1 inhibitors were selectively delivered to the tissue-containing nerve terminals. Graded esophageal distention was used for mechanical stimulation. The NaV1.7 inhibitor PF-05089771 nearly abolished action potential initiation in response to low levels of esophageal distention but only partially inhibited the response to higher levels of esophageal distention. The PF-05089771-insensitive component of the response progressively increased (up to ≈50%) with increasing esophageal distention and was abolished by tetrodotoxin (TTX). In addition to NaV1.7, nodose C-fiber [transient receptor potential channel-vanilloid subfamily member 1 (TRPV1)-positive] neurons retrogradely labeled from the esophagus expressed mRNA for multiple TTX-sensitive NaV1s. The group NaV1.1, NaV1.2, and NaV1.3 inhibitor ICA-121431 inhibited but did not abolish the PF-05089771-insensitive component of the response to high level of esophageal distention. However, combination of ICA-121431 with compound 801, which also inhibits NaV1.7 and NaV1.6, nearly abolished the response to the high level of esophageal distention. Our data indicate that the action potential initiation in esophageal nodose C-fibers evoked by low (innocuous) levels of esophageal distention is mediated by NaV1.7. However, the response evoked by higher (noxious) levels of esophageal distention has a progressively increasing NaV1.7-independent component that involves multiple TTX-sensitive NaV1s. The stimulus intensity-dependent recruitment of NaV1s may offer novel opportunities for strategic targeting of NaV1 subunits for inhibition of nociceptive signaling in visceral C-fibers.NEW & NOTEWORTHY We report that pharmacologically distinguishable voltage-gated sodium channels (NaV1) mediate action potential initiation at low (innocuous) versus high (noxious) intensity of esophageal distention in nerve terminals of vagal nodose C-fibers. Action potential initiation at low intensity is entirely dependent on NaV1.7; however, additional tetrodotoxin (TTX)-sensitive NaV1s are recruited at higher intensity of distention. This is the first demonstration that NaV1s underlying action potential initiation in visceral C-fibers depend on the intensity of the stimulus.

Bruton's tyrosine kinase inhibition effectively protects against human IgE-mediated anaphylaxis.

No known therapies can prevent anaphylaxis. Bruton's tyrosine kinase (BTK) is an enzyme thought to be essential for high-affinity IgE receptor (FcεRI) signaling in human cells. We tested the hypothesis that FDA-approved BTK inhibitors (BTKis) would prevent IgE-mediated responses including anaphylaxis. We showed that irreversible BTKis broadly prevented IgE-mediated degranulation and cytokine production in primary human mast cells and blocked allergen-induced contraction of isolated human bronchi. To address their efficacy in vivo, we created and used what we believe to be a novel humanized mouse model of anaphylaxis that does not require marrow ablation or human tissue implantation. After a single intravenous injection of human CD34+ cells, NSG-SGM3 mice supported the population of mature human tissue-resident mast cells and basophils. These mice showed excellent responses during passive systemic anaphylaxis using human IgE to selectively evoke human mast cell and basophil activation, and response severity was controllable by alteration of the amount of allergen used for challenge. Remarkably, pretreatment with just 2 oral doses of the BTKi acalabrutinib completely prevented moderate IgE-mediated anaphylaxis in these mice and also significantly protected against death during severe anaphylaxis. Our data suggest that BTKis may be able to prevent anaphylaxis in humans by inhibiting FcεRI-mediated signaling.

Design, Synthesis, and Evaluation of Isoquinoline Ureas as TRPV1 Antagonists.

BACKGROUND: The inhibition of transient receptor potential vanilloid receptor 1 (TRPV1) has emerged as a novel approach for the treatment of various pain states. Pyrrolidinyl urea, SB 705498 with pKb = 7.3 in guinea pig TRPV1 receptor has been investigated in Phase II clinical trials for pain and chronic cough. Another heteroaryl urea derivative, A-425619 1, has been reported to be a potent and selective TRPV1 antagonist of capsaicin-evoked receptor activation with an IC50 value of 4 nM in hTRPV1. OBJECTIVE: A series of thirteen A-425619 1 analogues with modifications centered around the Cregion were synthesized to understand the binding site characteristics of TRPV1 receptors. METHODS: We synthesized a series of isoquinoline ureas and evaluated their antagonist potency using smooth muscle assay using guinea pig trachea along with the evaluation of the molecular properties and molecular modeling using CoMFA studies. RESULTS: p-Chloro 4, p-bromo 5, m-isothiocyanate 15, and p-isothiocyanate 16 derivatives were found to be the most potent members of the series with pKb values in the range of 7.3-7.4 in the functional assay using guinea pig trachea. The lead compound A-425619 1 exhibited a pKb value of 8.1 in this assay. CONCLUSION: The para-substituted analogues were found to be more potent than the ortho- and meta- analogues in the biological assay. This observation was further supported by molecular modeling studies using CoMFA.

Role of TRP channels in Gq-coupled protease-activated receptor 1-mediated activation of mouse nodose pulmonary C-fibers.

We evaluated the mechanisms underlying protease-activated receptor 1 (PAR1)-mediated activation of nodose C-fibers in mouse lungs. The PAR1-induced action potential discharge at the terminals was strongly inhibited in phospholipase C-ß3 (PLCß3)-deficient animals. At the level of the cell soma, PAR1 activation led to an increase in cytosolic calcium that was largely inhibited by transient receptor potential (TRP) A1 antagonism. Patch-clamp recordings, however, revealed that neither TRPA1 nor TRPV1 or any other ruthenium red-sensitive ion channels are required for the PAR1-mediated inward current or membrane depolarization in isolated nodose neurons. Consistent with these findings, PAR1-mediated action potential discharge in mouse lung nodose C-fiber terminals was unaltered in Trpa1/Trpv1 double-knockout animals and Trpc3/Trpc6 double-knockout animals. The activation of the C-fibers was also not inhibited by ruthenium red at concentrations that blocked TRPV1- and TRPA1-dependent responses. The biophysical data show that PAR1/Gq-mediated activation of nodose C-fibers may involve multiple ion channels downstream from PLCß3 activation. TRPA1 is an ion channel that participates in PAR1/Gq-mediated elevation in intracellular calcium. There is little evidence, however, that TRPA1, TRPV1, TRPC3, TRPC6, or other ruthenium red-sensitive TRP channels are required for PAR1/Gq-PLCß3-mediated membrane depolarization and action potential discharge in bronchopulmonary nodose C-fibers in the mouse.

Molecular/Ionic Basis of Vagal Bronchopulmonary C-Fiber Activation by Inflammatory Mediators.

Stimulation of bronchopulmonary vagal afferent C fibers by inflammatory mediators can lead to coughing, chest tightness, and changes in breathing pattern, as well as reflex bronchoconstriction and secretions. These responses serve a defensive function in healthy lungs but likely contribute to many of the signs and symptoms of inflammatory airway diseases. A better understanding of the mechanisms underlying the activation of bronchopulmonary C-fiber terminals may lead to novel therapeutics that would work in an additive or synergic manner with existing anti-inflammatory strategies.

Allergen-induced histaminergic and non-histaminergic activation of itch C-fiber nerve terminals in mouse skin.

Acute cutaneous exposure to allergen often leads to itch, but seldom pain. The effect of mast cell activation on cutaneous C-fibers was studied using innervated isolated mouse skin preparation that allows for intra-arterial delivery of chemicals to the nerve terminals in the skin. Allergen (ovalbumin) injection into the isolated skin of actively sensitized mice strongly stimulated chloroquine (CQ)-sensitive C-fibers (also referred to as "itch" nerves); on the other hand, CQ-insensitive C-fibers were activated only modestly, if at all. The histamine H1 receptor antagonist pyrilamine abolished itch C-fibers response to histamine, but failed to significantly reduce the response to ovalbumin. Ovalbumin also strongly activated itch C-fibers in skin isolated from Mrgpr-cluster Δ-/- mice. When pyrilamine was studied in the Mrgpr-cluster Δ-/- mice thereby eliminating the influence of both histamine H1 and Mrgpr receptors (MrgprA3 and C11 are selectively expressed by itch nerves), the ovalbumin response was very nearly eliminated. The data indicate that the acute activation of itch C-fibers in mouse skin is largely secondary to the combined effect of activation of histamine H1 and Mrpgr receptors.

Effects of ginger constituent 6-shogaol on gastroesophageal vagal afferent C-fibers.

BACKGROUND: Ginger has been used as an herbal medicine worldwide to relieve nausea/vomiting and gastrointestinal discomfort, but the cellular and molecular mechanisms of its neuronal action remain unclear. The present study aimed to determine the effects of ginger constituent 6-shogaol on gastroesophageal vagal nodose C-fibers. METHODS: Extracellular single-unit recording and two-photon nodose neuron imaging were performed, respectively, in ex vivo gastroesophageal-vagal preparations from wild type and Pirt-GCaMP6 transgenic mice. The action potential discharge or calcium influx evoked by mechanical distension and chemical perfusions applied to the gastroesophageal vagal afferent nerve endings were recorded, respectively, at their intact neuronal cell soma in vagal nodose ganglia. The effects of 6-shogaol on nodose C-fiber neurons were then compared and determined. KEY RESULTS: Gastroesophageal application of 6-shogaol-elicited intensive calcium influxes in nodose neurons and evoked robust action potential discharges in most studied nodose C-fibers. Such activation effects were followed by a desensitized response to the second application of 6-shogaol. However, action potential discharges evoked by esophageal mechanical distension, after 6-shogaol perfusion, did not significantly change. Pretreatment with TRPA1 selective blocker HC-030031 inhibited 6-shogaol-induced action potential discharges in gastric and esophageal nodose C-fiber neurons, suggesting that TRPA1 played a role in mediating 6-shogaol-induced activation response. CONCLUSION AND INFERENCES: This study provides evidence that ginger constituent 6-shogaol directly activates vagal afferent C-fiber peripheral gastrointestinal endings. This activation leads to desensitization to subsequent application of 6-shogaol but not subsequent esophageal mechanical distension. Further investigation is required to establish a possible contribution in its anti-emetic effects.

Targeting C-fibers for peripheral acting anti-tussive drugs.

Activation of vagal C-fibers is likely involved in some types of pathological coughing, especially coughing that is associated with airway inflammation. This is because stimulation of vagal C-fibers leads to strong urge to cough sensations, and because C-fiber terminals can be strongly activated by mediators associated with airway inflammation. The most direct manner in which a given mediator can activate a C-fiber terminal is through interacting with its receptor expressed in the terminal membrane. The agonist-receptor interaction then must lead to the opening (or potentially closing) of ion channels that lead to a membrane depolarization. This depolarization is referred to as a generator potential. If, and only if, the generator potential reaches the voltage necessary to activate voltage-gated sodium channels, action potentials are initiated and conducted to the central terminals within the CNS. Therefore, there are three target areas to block the inflammatory mediator induced activation of C-fiber terminals. First, at the level of the mediator-receptor interaction, secondly at the level of the generator potential, and third at the level of the voltage-gated sodium channels. Here we provide a brief overview of each of these therapeutic strategies.