[Salivary cortisol as a stress parameter in piglets]. / Speichelkortisol als Stressparameter bei Saugferkeln.

The relationship between salivary and plasma levels of total and free cortisol was monitored in 97 male piglets, aged two to four weeks, subjected to castration. Samples were taken 10 minutes before (basal value) as well as one, two, three, four and 24 hours post castration and at the same time intervals from a control group of 17 animals which did not undergo surgery. Simultaneously to blood (indwelling catheter) withdrawing saliva was collected by two cotton swabs. Cortisol levels were measured by radioimmunoassay (RIA). A highly significant increase in total, free and salivary cortisol was found within the first four hours after castration compared to the control group. The percentage increase one hour after castration above basal values was highest in free plasma cortisol (21.08 +/- 2.03 nmol/l vs. 61.26 +/- 4.16 nmol/l; 290.6%), and lowest in total plasma cortisol (177.33 +/- 9.69 nmol/l vs. 374.09 +/- 18.21 nmol/l; 211.0%), whereas salivary cortisol showed an 255.7% increase (10.46 +/- 1.03 nmol/l vs. 26.75 +/- 1.93 nmol/l). Total cortisol included 11.9-16.4% free cortisol. Salivary cortisol concentration was between 5.9% and 7.5% of the total plasma cortisol concentration. The highest correlation between total plasma cortisol and salivary cortisol occurred one hour after castration (r = 0.57; p < 0.01). The correlation between free and salivary cortisol was lowest for basal values (r = 0.27; p < 0.05), whereas correlations for the remaining time points were highly significant (0.41 < or = r < or = 0.61; p < 0.01). For the control group significant correlations were found between salivary and total plasma cortisol (0.58 < or = r < or = 0.89; p < 0.05) and between free and salivary cortisol (0.63 < or = r < or = 0.92; p < 0.05). The present work indicates that the measurement of salivary levels of cortisol reflects the concentration of this hormone in plasma samples of piglets.

[The impact of suboptimal animal husbandry practices on animal health and economic profitability using the example of tie-in and loose housing system of dairy cattle]. / Auswirkung von Haltungsmängeln auf Tiergesundheit und Wirtschaftlichkeit am Beispiel der Anbinde- und Laufstallhaltung von Milchkühen.

In this study of two common housing systems of dairy cattle, the tie-in system and the loose housing system, check lists were created to evaluate whether these husbandry systems fulfill the needs of the animals. Furthermore, a combination of questionnaires and interviews were employed to assess the qualification of dairy stockmen to handle the animals. These checklists should provide a useful tool for those persons involved in the examination of husbandry systems, both by providing a written record and by providing a clear outline of all the points that need to be covered during such an examination. The study, done in the way of an explorative analysis of data, included 22 farms (14 with tie-in systems and 8 with loose housing systems) and a total of 802 animals. With regard to the economic effects of poor management and housing conditions, several interesting and statistically noteworthy correlations emerged. TIE-IN SYSTEM: Positive correlations were found between severity of behavioural abnormalities (behave)and number of injuries due to husbandry system (injury); injury and number of inseminations per pregnancy (preg); injury and age of cow (age); preg and cell count of milk (cell). Negative correlations were found between cell and milk yield (milk) as well as between the qualification of stockmen (equal) and inappropriate technical design of the housing environment (tech). LOOSE HOUSING SYSTEM: Positive correlations existed between behave and injury, and between tech and injury. Negative correlations were found between milk and cell, equal and tech, and milk and age. The magnitudes of these correlations were quantified by means of linear regression analysis. Comparison of the two husbandry systems revealed that while the loose housing systems is associated with significantly more problems related to tech, it is associated with significantly fewer problems related to injury. It seems that in this housing system cows are better able to avoid injury since they are allowed to move freely. No significant differences in behavior were found between the two husbandry systems. The present study shows the importance of proper technical design of housing environments, both in relation to animal welfare and to economic profitability.

[Effect of steam application based on microbiological and parasitologic test procedures]. / Untersuchungen zum Effekt der Dampfeinwirkung anhand mikrobiologischer und parasitologischer Prüfverfahren.

In the present study steam application was investigated with regard to microbicidal and parasiticidal effects. The cleaning apparatus used (Uninova Company) works at a boiler pressure of about 5 bar and consequently with a temperature up to 155 degrees C inside the boiler. Whereas the ambient atmosphere working temperature of steam is slightly below 100 degrees C. The tests are based on the DVG guidelines for testing chemical disinfectants (2). Different steaming times and distances were used in germ carrier tests with three different germ carriers (tile, wood, carpet) and three different test germs (Staphyloccocus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Candida albicans) in order to determine the optimum conditions for biocidal effects of steam-application. These optimum conditions were additionally tested with two test viruses (ECBO- and Reo-virus) and a parasitological resting form (ascarid worm eggs). Swirling of germs caused by steam turbulence was minimized by covering the steam outlet nozzle with cloth. The experiments showed logarithmical reduction factors of at least 5.0 in the germ count at steaming times of 5 seconds and a steaming distance of 2.5 cm for all three test germs on all three germ carriers (mean of 10 repeated tests). The virological tests showed good disinfection results after a steaming time of only 2 seconds using aseptic gauze as germ carrier and also after 5 seconds using wood as a carrier. Finally in testing vitality of undeveloped Ascarid worm eggs only 2 seconds of steam treatment proved to be sufficient for a 100 percent destruction. According to the present results steam treatment is most likely to become a valuable, ecologically compatible method in controlling hygienic problems, with a potential of partly replacing chemical disinfectants. In particular we see applications in keeping pets and companion animals, provided the above mentioned rules are followed (steaming distance 2.5 cm; steaming time 5 seconds; cloth). In farm animal stables steam disinfection seems harder to achieve because of large, rough surfaces and economical reasons as e.g. expenditure of time and energy.

Physiological correlates associated with cribbing behaviour in horses: changes in thermal threshold, heart rate, plasma beta-endorphin and serotonin.

The aim of the present study was to obtain information on the possible mechanisms underlying cribbing behaviour in horses. To investigate the horse's responsiveness to an external stimulus, a device for telemetric measurement of thermal threshold, using the forelimb withdrawal reflex, was developed and validated. Measurements of thermal threshold took place in cribbing horses (n = 11) before and during cribbing periods. Heart rate was monitored continuously in the same horses. Blood samples were collected before and during cribbing periods as well and in age- and sex-matched control horses (n = 11). beta-endorphin and cortisol were determined in plasma using radioimmunoassay techniques, serotonin was analysed by high performance liquid chromatography. Compared with basal values, thermal threshold was significantly (P = 0.003) lower during cribbing periods. The mean difference was 4.9 degrees C. Heart rate decreased significantly (P = 0.026) and showed a mean reduction of 2.4 beats/min during cribbing. Given the fact that arousal usually is associated with an increase in nociceptive threshold and in heart rate, the decrease in both during cribbing provide evidence that cribbing may reduce stress. Cribbers showed 3 times higher basal beta-endorphin levels than controls (mean 49.5 vs. 16.2 pmol/l, P = 0.006) and there was a trend for lower basal serotonin levels (mean 201.5 vs. 414.3 nmol/l, P = 0.07). These data indicate differences in cribber's endogenous opioid and serotonergic systems.

[Climatic condition and airborne microorganisms in wild cat housing]. / Stallklima und Luftkeimflora in Raubkatzenhäusern.

The aim of the present study was to obtain information to improve the environmental conditions in enclosures for cats of prey. There was a large variation in indoor temperature, relative humidity, concentration of airborne ammonia and microorganisms during the year. The ascertained concentrations of airborne microorganisms distinguished between the different housing systems and ranged between 7177 and 15,835 KBE/m3. The concentration correlated negatively with the temperature outside of the buildings, while the amount of each compound, especially the gram positive cocci and rods, was influenced by the microclimate of the stables. The gram negative germs covered only 4.5 to 7.5%. Therefore the gram positive microorganisms were predominant. Part of the primary pathogen germs was low and amounted below 1%. There was now risks for visitors to get an infectious disease caused by the zoo animals.

[Adequate animal housing and existence regulations of cats]. / Tiergerechte Haltung und Bestandsregulierung von Katzen.

Behavioural problems and the number of sick animals are amongst the most valuable criteria for evaluation of adequate housing conditions in cats, especially for official veterinarians, and can provide help for expert opinions. Good animal keeping involves prophylactic hygienic measures which also reduce the health risk for animal owners. Masshousing of cats, is usually not suitable for the individual animal and represent a hygienic risk for the pet and the owners. Restriction can achieved by prohibition or restriction to qualified persons after passing an examination. The regulation of feline populations and the resulting problem of feral cats require systematic measures. Fighting the underlying reasons, neutering and marking of all cats are the most important factors. Catching and neutering feral cats has implications to animal welfare and animal hygiene and is therefore dependent on public support and systematic handling by the responsible officials.

[Burden of fattening pigs and the environment of the pig fattening farms caused by lung-passing dust particles, pig stall specific bacteria and ammonia]. / Untersuchungen zur Belastung von Mastschweinen sowie der Umgebung von Mastschweineställen durch atembaren Feinstaub, stallspezifische Bakterien und Ammoniak.

According for their topographic and isolated locations (no built-up area or trees down-wind) 13 fattening pig pens with an average stocking rate of 737 (360-2500) have been investigated for burden by immission of animals and the environment outside the stables up to a distance of 100m downwind of the source. These studies have been carried out between June 1988 and April 1989 in monthly intervals. The investigated parameters have been: dust of particle size < 5 microns, stable specific bacteria, ammonia and symptoms of animals respiratory diseases. In the stalls could be shown an significant seasonal influence on bacteria, lung passing dust content and ammonia concentration with a maximum during December/January (1.1 x 10(6) CFU/m3; 0.26 mg/m3; 27 ppm) and minimum during June/July (5.7 x 10(5) CFU/m3; 0.075 mg/m3; 11 ppm). In the environment outside the pigsties a significant seasonal influence could be found only for the stable specific bacteria up to the distance of 100m of the source of emission, showing a maximum during fall and winter (1.7 x 10(3) CFU/m3) and minimal concentration during spring and summer (9.3 x 10(2) CFU/m3). Due to emission of spent air a high significant reduction of the stable specific bacteria and lung passing dust concentration could be established outside the stables within a distance of 10 m. The content of stable specific bacteria come to 0.2% (1941 CFU/m3) compared with the amount measured at the air outlet of the spent air shaft. At this distance the lung passing dust concentration has been reduced to 11% (0.016 mg/m3) of the concentration at the emission source. In comparison to the examined "neutral air" upwind, the content of lung passing dust downwind has not been heightened significantly at any measuring point or time of the year, whereas the content of stable specific bacteria downwind was significantly higher up to a distance of 50 m (p < or = 0.01). The stable specific bacteria that were isolated from the air outside the pigsties, mostly gram positive cocci, had in part a strong resistance against Erythromycin, Penicillin, Tetracyclin and Ampicillin. The fact that in all investigated farms irritations or diseases of the animals respiratory tract in different degrees of intensity could be determined shows the urgency to minimize the burden by optimizing the hygienic situation inside the stalls. This means especially the colder period of the year, because a high frequency of transgression of the ammonia threshold value according to German regulations for pig housing could be found in this time.

[Veterinary surveillance in animal shelters--defects and potentials]. / Zur tierärztlichen Bestandsbetreuung in Tierheimen--Mängel und Möglichkeiten.

Looking after the stock of local animal shelters takes a considerable part of the field of activity of veterinarians. Because of the recent situation on the job market it is of interest for the veterinary profession to provide and extend this scope of duties. In order to give a comprehensive survey of the possibilities of curative and preventive herd advising in animal shelters, 369 managers of German animals shelters were asked to answer a questionnaire containing 92 answers, concerning the situation in the animal shelter. The answers of 144 animal shelters go to prove the following results. In 41% of the animal shelters veterinarians are visiting for rounds in regular intervals, 46% of the shelters are calling the veterinarians only if needed. 1% of the animal shelters bring sick animals into the clinic and 1% does not provide any medical care for the animals. At the moment 11% of the questioned animal shelters offer positions for veterinarians. In these case a significantly better, mainly preventive medical care is found compared to shelters without regular medical care. Deworming (98%) and vaccinations (91%) are provided routinely for dogs being brought to the animal shelter recently. In 46% of the animal shelters employees vaccinate dogs during the absence of a veterinarian. Therefore, 36% of the animal shelters bring new dogs into contact with the others without a soundness examination. Even though 60% of the animal shelters dispose quarantine units, dogs are only isolated for 7 days in average in 15% of the animal shelters. The most common disease of dogs in animal shelters is diarrhoea.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

[CO2/O2 anesthesia for the castration of male piglets (preliminary results)]. / Die CO2/O2-Anästhesie zur Kastration von männlichen Ferkeln (vorläufige Ergebnisse).

Introduction of anaesthesia with CO2/O2 (60% to 40%) is possible within 90 and 120 seconds. There are moderate to excessive excitations occurring as part of state II of anaesthesia. Anaesthesia (during castration) in CO2/O2-atmosphere produces excellent analgesia and relaxation. The duration of castration surgery is much shorter under CO2-anaesthesia than without anaesthesia. Blood cortisol levels are significantly higher after castration without CO2-anaesthesia. About 5 minutes after CO2/O2-anaesthesia and castration surgery, piglets are already awake and standing.

[The problem of the danger of dogs; a study of incidents with dogs in a large city]. / Zum Problem der Gefährlichkeit von Hunden; eine Untersuchung von Vorfällen mit Hunden in einer Grossstadt.

Incidents with dogs present a public problem. In order to specify this, all recorded cases of dog bites in the city of Munich from 1986-1991 (n = 284) were registered. The range of injury of men and animal, the influence of breed, age and sex of the dog on the incident, the behaviour of the owner in the situation and the location were inquired. 207 people have been lightly wounded. 136 dogs have been injured. The most incidents occurred with German Shepherds, mixed breeds of German Shepherds, Boxers, Rottweilers, Doberman Pinschers, Great Danes and Bull terriers. Almost one third of the dogs have been involved in cases of recurrence. There has been a distinct influence of the owner on the behaviour of the dogs. The reaction of the owner has got significant influence of the kind, frequency and seriousness of the accident. The spectrum reaches from passive watching of the incidence to encouraging the dog to bite. Most owners did not absolve any kind of educational program with their dog. More than 50% of the dog owners were judged incompetent to lead their dog in an expert opinion and two third of the owners considered themselves unsuitable to lead a dog. Almost 90% of the dogs have not been on a leash. Most of the incidents took place in public places and only 9% happened in parks. A catalogue of possible measures to avoid such incidents will be presented.

[Raising dogs and cats in compliance with animal welfare using advice on behavior and behavior therapy]. / Tiergerechte Haltung von Hunden und Katzen durch Verhaltensberatungen und Verhaltenstherapie.

Housing conditions of companion animals are often not adequate to animal welfare. This is caused by a generally negative attitude towards animals in the public, combined with a lack of knowledge about the normal behaviour and the animals demands towards their environment. In the interest of animal welfare, measures are needed which could help to improve the attitude towards animals by the general public. A further aim should be to provide a better knowledge about the needs of animals in the group of persons owning animals as well as persons planning to buy one in the future. Essential improvements in the housing conditions of dogs and cats can be expected by a more intense engagement of veterinarians in behaviour therapy. Individual points of this thematic will be discussed, suggestions as well as advice for the improvement of work will be introduced.

Response of hormones modulating plasma cholesterol to dietary casein or soy protein in minipigs.

To elucidate the mechanism mediating the effect of dietary casein or soy protein on serum cholesterol concentrations we followed the endocrine response to the intake of these dietary proteins. The hormones analyzed were those known to modulate serum cholesterol concentration. A 7-wk crossover nutrition study was performed with six adult Göttingen minipigs consuming semisynthetic diets based on either 20 wt% casein or soy isolate. At d 42 and 49, concentrations of six hormones were determined in 22 blood samples taken over the whole day. There were no significant differences in insulin, glucagon, the insulin/glucagon ratio, hydrocortisone or triiodothyronine among dietary groups. In the late postprandial phase (5 h after the meal and later) there were significantly higher growth hormone concentrations in soy-fed animals. At all times of the day, total and free thyroxine concentrations were higher after soy feeding than after casein feeding. On average, total and free thyroxine concentrations were 34 and 26% higher with soy protein feeding than with casein feeding. Our data agree with other reports of protein-dependent changes of thyroid hormones and may explain why different dietary proteins have different effects on serum cholesterol levels in sensitive species.

[Teaching and advanced training in the field of animal welfare and behavioral science]. / Lehre und Fortbildung auf dem Gebiet Tierschutz und Verhaltenslehre.

Since 1986 the regulations for receiving the veterinary surgeon medical licence include the subjects animal protection and ethology, thus causing demand for appropriate fields of teaching to be offered by the faculties of veterinary medicine. It is explained why the partially fluid boundaries between this new subject and animal hygiene have lead to corresponding combinations of subjects in Hannover and München. The fields of subjects offered in München for example illustrate important questions, especially in connection with practical application and definition towards other subjects. Difficulties within this subject are caused by the varying conditions of the particular university departments of veterinary medicine in the respect of teaching, research and services on the one hand and in the lack of appropriate to-be-scientists despite of excellent professional prospects on the other hand. The aspect of the professional standing is also mentioned, pointing out the fact that the professional stand of veterinary surgeons cannot afford to neglect further fields of occupation.

[Changes in the behavior of dogs after castration]. / Verhaltensänderungen von Hunden nach Kastration.

This study is based upon a written survey of keepers of neutered dogs about the behaviour of 209 male and 382 female dogs. The main findings are: Male dogs show behavioural changes after castration more often and more distinctly than female dogs after neutering. Behavioural problems in most cases are reduced or have even disappeared after neutering (male dogs 74%, female dogs 59%). At best, hypersexuality and connected problems are changed as expected. 49 of 80 aggressive male dogs and 25 of 47 female dogs are more gentle after neutering. 10 bitches appeared to be aggressive only after being neutered. Particularly feeding behaviour changes in 42% of the male dogs and 32% of the female dogs towards an increased intake of food, which also leads to an increase in body weight. This corresponds to decreasing activity, which is indicated by increasing time of rest (male dogs 36%, female dogs 18%) and decreasing motivation to move. Motivation for playing, watchfulness and perseverance change more seldomly and sometimes increase. The character of the neutered animals is predominantly described as "devoted, friendly and kind". Changes of behaviour following neutering depend on many influencing factors. Above all effective obedience training, but also the family situation of the owner, time factors, conditions of keeping and contact with other dogs have different impacts on the control of the individual behavioural problems.