Gorillas with spondyloarthropathies express an MHC class I molecule with only limited sequence similarity to HLA-B27 that binds peptides with arginine at P2.

The human MHC class I gene, HLA-B27, is a strong risk factor for susceptibility to a group of disorders termed spondyloarthropathies (SpAs). HLA-B27-transgenic rodents develop SpAs, implicating HLA-B27 in the etiology of these disorders. Several nonhuman primates, including gorillas, develop signs of SpAs indistinguishable from clinical signs of humans with SpAs. To determine whether SpAs in gorillas have a similar HLA-B27-related etiology, we analyzed the MHC class I molecules expressed in four affected gorillas. Gogo-B01, isolated from three of the animals, has only limited similarity to HLA-B27 at the end of the alpha1 domain. It differs by several residues in the B pocket, including differences at positions 45 and 67. However, the molecular model of Gogo-B*0101 is consistent with a requirement for positively charged residues at the second amino acid of peptides bound by the MHC class I molecule. Indeed, the peptide binding motif and sequence of individual ligands eluted from Gogo-B*0101 demonstrate that, like HLA-B27, this gorilla MHC class I molecule binds peptides with arginine at the second amino acid position of peptides bound by the MHC class I molecule. Furthermore, live cell binding assays show that Gogo-B*0101 can bind HLA-B27 ligands. Therefore, although most gorillas that develop SpAs express an MHC class I molecule with striking differences to HLA-B27, this molecule binds peptides similar to those bound by HLA-B27.

A high incidence of Shigella-induced arthritis in a primate species: major histocompatibility complex class I molecules associated with resistance and susceptibility, and their relationship to HLA-B27.

The human major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I gene, HLA-B27, is a strong risk factor for susceptibility to a group of disorders termed spondyloarthropathies. Rodents that express HLA-B27 develop spondyloarthropathies, implicating HLA-B27 in the etiology of these disorders. To determine whether an HLA-B27-like molecule was associated with spondyloarthropathies in nonhuman primates, we analyzed the MHC class I cDNAs expressed in a cohort of rhesus macaques that developed reactive arthritis after an outbreak of shigellosis. We identified several cDNAs with only limited sequence similarity to HLA-B27. Interestingly, one of these MHC molecules had a B pocket identical to that of HLA-B39. Pool sequencing of radiolabeled peptides bound by this molecule demonstrated that, like HLA-B27 and HLA-B39, it could bind peptides with arginine at the second position. However, extensive analysis of the MHC class I molecules in this cohort revealed no statistically significant association between any particular MHC class I allele and susceptibility to reactive arthritis. Furthermore, none of the rhesus MHC class I molecules bore a strong resemblance to HLA-B27, indicating that reactive arthritis can develop in this animal model in the absence of an HLA-B27-like molecule. Surprisingly, there was a statistically significant association between the rhesus macaque MHC A locus allele, Mamu-A*12, and the absence of reactive arthritis following Shigella infection.

An unusual insertion in intron 2 of apparently functional MHC class I alleles in rhesus macaques.

Here we describe a nucleotide insertion in intron 2 of two rhesus major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I alleles, Mamu-A*05 and Mamu-A*07. This resulted in an intron 2 that was nearly twice the length of any other intron 2 of primate MHC class I genes sequenced to date. This insertion was most similar (93% identity) to the beginning of intron 3 of HLA-A alleles. It was also similar to intron 3 of several human MHC class I pseudogenes and MHC class I pseudogenes from cotton top tamarin and cat. The finding of this insertion in two rhesus MHC class I genes is surprising given the uniformity in length and sequence of introns of functional HLA-A, -B and -C genes.

Mamu-I: a novel primate MHC class I B-related locus with unusually low variability.

The rhesus macaque is an important animal model for several human diseases and organ transplantation. Therefore, definition of the MHC of this species is crucial to the development of these models. Unfortunately, unlike humans, lymphocytes from a single rhesus macaque express up to 12 different MHC class I cDNAs. From which locus these various alleles are derived is unclear. In our attempts to define the MHC class I loci of the rhesus macaque, we have identified an unusual MHC class I locus, Mamu-I. We isolated 26 I locus alleles from three different macaque species but not from three other Cercopithecine genera, suggesting that the I locus is the result of a recent duplication of the B locus occurring after the divergence of macaques from the ancestor of the other extant Cercopithecine genera. Mamu-I mRNA transcripts were detected in all tissues examined and Mamu-I protein was produced in rhesus B lymphoblastoid cell lines. Furthermore, Mamu-I protein was detected by flow cytometry on the surface of human 721.221 cells transfected with Mamu-I. In contrast to the polymorphism present at this locus, there is unusually low sequence variability, with the mean number of nucleotide differences between alleles being only 3.6 nt. Therefore, Mamu-I is less variable than any other polymorphic MHC class I locus described to date. Additionally, no evidence for positive selection on the peptide binding region was observed. Together, these results suggest that Mamu-I is an MHC class I locus in primates that has features of both classical and nonclassical loci.

Management of reactive arthritis in a juvenile gorilla (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) with long-term sulfasalazine therapy.

A juvenile western lowland gorilla (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) experienced recurrent fever, lethargy, diarrhea, and/or arthritis starting at age 6 mo. During an episode at age 15 mo, Shigella sp. was isolated from diarrheic feces. At age 41 mo, reactive arthritis was diagnosed. In addition, the gorilla's growth was retarded. All arthritic attacks were managed symptomatically prior to age 4 yr, at which time a severe episode precipitated the implementation of therapy with sulfasalazine, an arthritis suppressive medication. Examination 27 mo later revealed cessation of progressive joint pathology although the animal exhibited decreased range of motion in most joints. The gorilla has been on sulfasalazine therapy for 4 yr without lameness. Growth has resumed, and there has been no radiographic evidence of progressive joint degeneration. Immunogenetic analysis of whole blood obtained at age 68 mo identified the gorilla major histocompatibility class I allele, Gogo-B*0101, which has limited nucleotide sequence similarity to HLA-B27, an allele associated with postinfection reactive arthritis in humans. Sulfasalazine therapy effectively managed reactive arthritis in this gorilla and should be considered for similarly frequently affected animals. Juvenile gorillas, in populations with a history of clinical shigellosis and/or postdiarrhea arthritis, may benefit from prophylactic sulfasalazine therapy after episodes of bacterial enterocolitis. Sulfasalazine therapy should be considered in all gorillas, juvenile and adult, experiencing confirmed Shigella sp.-associated enterocolitis.

Major histocompatibility complex class I genes in primates: co-evolution with pathogens.

The major histocompatibility complex (MHC) is the most polymorphic genetic system known, playing a central role in the cellular immune response to pathogens. The relationship between the MHC of humans and non-human primates has increased our understanding of MHC evolution and how polymorphism of this gene family may have been generated. We will review MHC class I evolution in great apes and Old World and New World primates and discuss new data from the simian immunodeficiency virus/rhesus monkey animal model that demonstrate the role of MHC class I alleles in selecting for new populations of viruses. This suggests that certain pathogens co-evolve with the MHC class I molecules they encounter in a population.

Evolution of a new nonclassical MHC class I locus in two Old World primate species.

HLA-G is a nonclassical major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I molecule that is expressed only in the human placenta, suggesting that it plays an important role at the fetal-maternal interface. In rhesus monkeys, which have similar placentation to humans, the HLA-G orthologue is a pseudogene. However, rhesus monkeys express a novel placental MHC class I molecule, Mamu-AG, which has HLA-G-like characteristics. Phylogenetic analysis of AG alleles in two Old World primate species, the baboon and the rhesus macaque, revealed limited diversity characteristic of a nonclassical MHC class I locus. Gene trees constructed using classical and nonclassical primate MHC class I alleles demonstrated that the AG locus was most closely related to the classical A locus. Interestingly, gene tree analyses suggested that the AG alleles were most closely related to a subset of A alleles which are the products of an ancestral interlocus recombination event between the A and B loci. Calculation of the rates of synonymous and nonsynonymous substitution at the AG locus revealed that positive selection was not acting on the codons encoding the peptide binding region. In exon 4, however, the rate of nonsynonymous substitution was significantly lower than the rate of synonymous substitution, suggesting that negative selection was acting on these codons.

A high frequency of Mamu-A*01 in the rhesus macaque detected by polymerase chain reaction with sequence-specific primers and direct sequencing.

SIV infection of rhesus macaques is an excellent model for HIV infection of humans. Unfortunately, it is has been difficult to identify macaques expressing particular MHC class I alleles. Here we describe the use of PCR-SSP for Mamu-A*01 typing of rhesus macaques. The Mamu-A*01 allele was amplified from genomic DNA using Mamu-A*01-specific primers and positive PCR products were directly sequenced. Our technique identified 15 Mamu-A*01-positive animals of 68 tested. We validated our molecular analysis by showing that lymphocytes from 8 Mamu-A*01-positive animals expressed Mamu-A*01 as determined by immunoprecipitation and 1-D IEF. The technical simplicity and accuracy of this typing method should facilitate selection of Mamu-A*01-positive rhesus macaques for AIDS virus pathogenesis and vaccine studies.

The MHC class I genes of the rhesus monkey. Different evolutionary histories of MHC class I and II genes in primates.

Homologues of the human HLA-A and -B MHC class I loci have been found in great apes and Old World primates suggesting that these two loci have existed for at least 30 million years. The C locus, however, shows some sequence similarity to the B locus and has been found only in gorillas, chimpanzees, and humans. To determine the age of the MHC class I C locus and to examine the evolution of the A and B loci we have cloned, sequenced, and in vitro translated 16 MHC class I cDNAs from two unrelated rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) using both cDNA library screening and PCR amplification. Analyses of these sequences suggest that the C locus is not present in the rhesus monkey, indicating that this locus may be of recent origin in gorillas, chimpanzees, and humans. The rhesus monkey's complement of MHC class I genes includes the products of at least one expressed A locus and at least two expressed B loci, indicating that a duplication of the B locus has taken place in the lineage leading to these Old World primates. Comparison of rhesus monkey MHC class I cDNAs to their primate counterparts reveals fundamental differences between MHC class I and class II evolution in primates. Although MHC class II allelic lineages are shared between humans and Old World primates, no such trans-species sharing of allelic lineages is seen at the MHC class I loci.