Actomyosin interaction at low ATP concentrations.

In vitro motility assay (IVMA) experiments were performed to analyze the movement of actin filaments sliding on a pavement of myosin molecules at different [ATP] and [ADP]. In standard experimental conditions at [ATP] = 2 mM, about 80% of the actin filaments move in unloaded conditions with a constant velocity. However, a fraction of at least 20% static actin filaments is always present. The accepted explanation is the occurrence of damaged "rigor"-like myosin heads that do not undergo the normal ATP-dependent cycling motion. However, in a series of IVMA experiments performed at different [ATP] we observed that the mobility of actin filaments increased with lowering [ATP]. We investigated the influence of [ATP] on the number of mobile actin filaments. IVMA experiments were performed at controlled nucleotide concentrations and the percentage of mobile filaments accurately determined by specific operator-guided software. The value of ΔG ATP involved was determined. Results showed that the number of mobile actin filaments sliding on type 2B heavy meromyosin isoform (2B HMM) increased at very low [ATP] accompanied by less negative ΔG ATP values. Similar results were obtained by increasing [ADP]. Performing experiments at the same [ATP] with different myosin types, we found a higher number of mobile actin filaments on slow type 1 HMM with respect to type 2B HMM while the highest number of mobile actin filaments was found on single-head myosin (S1 fraction). We also found that [ATP] did not influence the percentage of mobile actin filaments sliding on S1. Our results reveal novel aspects of actomyosin interaction.

BC(50): a generalized, unifying affinity descriptor.

Assessing binding affinities is an unavoidable step that we come across any time interactions between binding species are investigated. A quantitative evaluation of binding affinities relies on the determination of binding constants but, whilst the binding constant fully defines the affinity of a reagent for a ligand when only one complex species is formed, the same is not true when the interacting partners form more than one complex of different stoichiometry, because all complexes contribute to the overall binding affinity. Unfortunately, this situation is the rule rather than the exception in chemical systems, but a generally accepted solution for this issue has not yet been settled. In this Personal Account, we describe the evolution, from the initial idea to a fully developed stage, of a binding descriptor that has been developed with the aim of filling this gap, thereby providing scientists in all fields of chemistry with a unifying tool for the assessment of binding affinities based on the knowledge of the binding constants in systems that involve any number of complex species.

Balanced biochemical reactions: a new approach to unify chemical and biochemical thermodynamics.

A novel procedure is presented which, by balancing elements and electric charge of biochemical reactions which occur at constant pH and pMg, allows assessing the thermodynamics properties of reaction Δ(r)G'°, Δ(r)H'°, Δ(r)S'° and the change in binding of hydrogen and magnesium ions of these reactions. This procedure of general applicability avoids the complex calculations required by the use of the Legendre transformed thermodynamic properties of formation Δ(f)G'°, Δ(f)H'° and Δ(f)S'° hitherto considered an obligatory prerequisite to deal with the thermodynamics of biochemical reactions. As a consequence, the term "conditional" is proposed in substitution of "Legendre transformed" to indicate these thermodynamics properties. It is also shown that the thermodynamic potential G is fully adequate to give a criterion of spontaneous chemical change for all biochemical reactions and then that the use of the Legendre transformed G' is unnecessary. The procedure proposed can be applied to any biochemical reaction, making possible to re-unify the two worlds of chemical and biochemical thermodynamics, which so far have been treated separately.

Chiral diaminopyrrolic receptors for selective recognition of mannosides, part 1: design, synthesis, and affinities of second-generation tripodal receptors.

A new generation of chiral tripodal receptors for recognition of carbohydrates, featuring trans-1,2-diaminocyclohexane as a key structural element, and their recognition properties toward a set of glycosides of biologically relevant monosaccharides is described. The introduction of a chelating diamino unit into the pyrrolic tripodal architecture markedly enhanced their binding abilities compared with the parent aminopyrrolic receptors previously reported by our group. In addition, the chirality of the structure had a clear impact on affinities, as well as on selectivities, displaying high enantiodiscrimination levels. These second-generation diaminopyrrolic tripodal receptors are highly selective for mannose among other monosaccharides, with two members of the family being selective for the α and the ß anomers respectively. The measured affinities in acetonitrile, 83 µM of (S)-7 for the ß mannoside and 127 µM of (R)-5 for the α mannoside, make them the most effective synthetic receptors for mannosides reported to date. The affinity assessment required a further evolution of the BC(0)(50) parameter, a previously developed binding descriptor, which in its ultimate formulation has now been extended to include, with no restrictions, complexes of any stoichiometry, and can thus be generally employed to rank affinity data from heterogeneous systems on a common scale.

Chemical and biochemical thermodynamics: from ATP hydrolysis to a general reassessment.

The Legendre-transformed Gibbs energy change for a biochemical reaction, Delta(r)G', is shown to be equal to the nontransformed Gibbs energy change, Delta(r)G, of any single reaction involving selected chemical species of the biochemical system. These two Gibbs energies of reaction have hitherto been thought to have different values. The equality of the quantities means that a substantial part of biochemical and chemical thermodynamics, previously treated separately, can be treated within a unified thermodynamic framework. An important consequence of the equality of Delta(r)G and Delta(r)G' is that the Gibbs energy change of many enzyme reactions can be quantified without specifying which chemical species is the active substrate of the enzyme. Another consequence is that the transformed standard Gibbs energy change of a reaction, Delta(r)G'(0), can be calculated by a simple analytical expression, rather than the complex computational methods of the past. The equality of the quantities is restricted to Gibbs energy changes and does not apply to enthalpy or entropy changes.

Ion-pair binding: is binding both binding better?

It is often tempting to explain chemical phenomena on the basis of intuitive principles, but this practice can frequently lead to biased analysis of data and incorrect conclusions. One such intuitive principle is brought into play in the binding of salts by synthetic receptors. Following the heuristic concept that "binding both is binding better", it is widely believed that ditopic receptors capable of binding both ionic partners of a salt are more effective than monotopic receptors because of a cooperative effect. Using a newly designed ditopic receptor and a generalized binding descriptor, we show here that, when the problem is correctly formulated and the appropriate algorithm is derived, the cooperativity principle is neither general nor predictable, and that competition between ion binding and ion pairing may even lead to inhibition rather than enhancement of the binding of an ion to a ditopic receptor.

Binding of ionic species: a general approach to measuring binding constants and assessing affinities.

Bound together: The association of receptors with ionic species cannot be assimilated to the binding of neutral guests. When dealing with salts, both ion pairing and binding to the free and the ion-paired ionic guest determine the actual association pattern (see figure). The general issue of measuring association constants and assessing affinities for ions is addressed and validated in two cases of anion binding.A general approach to the largely underestimated issue of measuring binding constants and assessing affinities in the binding of ionic species is described. The approach is based on a rigorous, nongraphical determination of binding constants in multiequilibrium systems by nonlinear regression of chemical shift data from NMR titrations and on the use of the BC(50) descriptor for assessing affinities and ranking the binding ability of receptors on a common scale. The approach has been validated with two tripodal anion-binding receptors, namely, a ureidic (1) and a pyrrolic (2) receptor, binding to tetramethylammonium chloride in CDCl(3)/CD(3)CN (80:20). A set of five and six formation constants could be measured for 1 and 2, respectively, including, in addition to the ion pair, complexes of the free and the ion-paired anion. The BC(50) values calculated from the measured constants allowed a quantitative assessment of each receptor's binding affinity towards the chloride anion, the pyrrolic receptor showing a 15-fold larger affinity over the ureidic receptor, a figure that quantifies the improvement obtained by replacing the amido-pyrrolic for ureidic binding groups on the tripodal scaffold of the receptor. The results have shown that, in contrast to common practice, neither of the two systems could be appropriately described by a 1:1 association with the anion only, but required the ion-pairing and ion-pair binding equilibria to be taken into account because these contribute substantially to the complexation process. The BC(50) descriptor has also been shown to be a useful and general tool for the assessment of affinities of systems involving ionic species. The required extension of the BC(50) binding descriptor to include the treatment of ion-binding has been described in detail.

Pyrrolic tripodal receptors effectively recognizing monosaccharides. Affinity assessment through a generalized binding descriptor.

Pyrrolic and imino (3) or amino (4) H-bonding ligands were incorporated into a benzene-based tripodal scaffold to develop a new generation of receptors for molecular recognition of carbohydrates. Receptors 3 and 4 effectively bound a set of octylglycosides of biologically relevant monosaccharides, including glucose (Glc), galactose (Gal), mannose (Man), and N-acetyl-glucosamine (GlcNAc), showing micromolar affinities in CDCl3 and millimolar affinities in CD3CN by NMR titrations. Both receptors selectively recognized Glc among the investigated monosaccharides, with 3 generally less effective than 4 but showing selectivities for the all-equatorial beta-glycosides of Glc and GlcNAc among the largest reported for H-bonding synthetic receptors. Selectivities in CDCl3 spanned a range of nearly 250-fold for 3 and over 30-fold for 4. Affinities and selectivities were univocally assessed through the BC50 descriptor, for which a generalized treatment is described that extends the scope of the descriptor to include any two-reagent host-guest system featuring any number of binding constants. ITC titrations of betaGlc in acetonitrile evidenced, for both receptors, a strong enthalpic contribution to the binding interaction, suggesting multiple H bonding. Selectivity trends toward alphaGlc and betaGlc analogous to those obtained in solution were also observed in the gas phase for 3 and 4 by collision-induced dissociation experiments. From comparison with appropriate reference compounds, a substantial contribution to carbohydrate binding emerged for both the imino/amino and the pyrrolic H-bonding groups but not for the amidic group. This previously undocumented behavior, supported by crystallographic evidence, has been discussed in terms of geometric, functional, and coordinative complementarity between H-bonding groups and glycosidic hydroxyls and opens the way to a new designer strategy of H-bonding receptors for carbohydrates.

Quantitative mathematical expressions for accurate in vivo assessment of cytosolic [ADP] and DeltaG of ATP hydrolysis in the human brain and skeletal muscle.

Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy affords the possibility of assessing in vivo the thermodynamic status of living tissues. The main thermodynamic variables relevant for the knowledge of the health of living tissues are: DeltaG of ATP hydrolysis and cytosolic [ADP], the latter as calculated from the apparent equilibrium constant of the creatine kinase reaction. In this study we assessed the stoichiometric equilibrium constant of the creatine kinase reaction by in vitro (31)P NMR measurements and computer calculations resulting to be: logK(CK)=8.00+/-0.07 at T=310 K and ionic strength I=0.25 M. This value refers to the equilibrium: PCr(2-)+ADP(3-)+ H(+)=Cr+ATP(4-). We also assessed by computer calculation the stoichiometric equilibrium constant of ATP hydrolysis obtaining the value: logK(ATP-hyd)=-12.45 at T=310 K and ionic strength I=0.25 M, which refers to the equilibrium: ATP(4-)+H(2)O=ADP(3-)+PO(4)(3-)+2H(+). Finally, we formulated novel quantitative mathematical expressions of DeltaG of ATP hydrolysis and of the apparent equilibrium constant of the creatine kinase reaction as a function of total [PCr], pH and pMg, all quantities measurable by in vivo (31)P MRS. Our novel mathematical expressions allow the in vivo assessment of cytosolic [ADP] and DeltaG of ATP hydrolysis in the human brain and skeletal muscle taking into account pH and pMg changes occurring in living tissues both in physiological and pathological conditions.

Inorganic-organic hybrids formed by P,P'-diphenylmethylenediphosphinate, pcp2-, with the Cu2+ ion. X-ray crystal structures of [Cu(pcp)(H2O)2] x H2O and [Cu(pcp)(bipy)(H2O)].

Weakly coordinated [Cu(pcp)(H2O)n] complexes are formed in aqueous solution, at room temperature, by interaction of P,P'-diphenylmethylene diphosphinic acid (H2pcp) with copper(II) ions. However, heating of the solutions gives rise to the formation of two extended metal-oxygen networks of formulas [Cu(pcp)(H2O)2] x H2O, 1, and [Cu(pcp)(H2O)2], 2. In the presence of 2,2'-bipyridyl (bipy) the diamine derivative [Cu(pcp)(bipy)(H2O)], 4, has been isolated. Complex 1 easily loses water to form a monohydrated derivative [Cu(pcp)H2O], 3, whereas 2 is completely dehydrated after prolonged heating at 150 degrees C, under vacuum. The compounds 1 and 2 have substantially different solid-state structures as shown by X-ray powder diffraction spectra, IR spectra, and thermogravimetric analyses. Consistently, the two complexes cannot be directly interconverted and present different dehydration pathways. Rehydration of these materials in both cases allows quantitative formation of 1. X-ray analysis established that the structure of 1 consists of a corrugated two-dimensional layered polymeric array, where infinite zigzag chains of Cu centers and bridging phenylphosphinate ligands are linked together through strong hydrogen-bonding interactions; the structure of 4 consists of monodimensional polymers, where the hydrogen-bonding interactions play an essential bridging role in the extended architecture. In both structures the metal center displays a five-coordinate environment with approximate square pyramidal geometry, with the pcp ligand acting as bidentate and monodentate in 1 and solely as bidentate in 4. In 1 the coordination sphere is completed through water molecules; in 4, through water and diamine ligands. The thermogravimetric analyses of the complexes are compared with those of the related hybrids [M(pcp)(H2O)3] x H2O, where M = Mn, Co, or Ni, confirming that noncoordinated water molecules also play a basic role in determining the molecular packing.

A new tripodal receptor for molecular recognition of monosaccharides. A paradigm for assessing glycoside binding affinities and selectivities by 1H NMR spectroscopy.

A new tripodal receptor for the recognition of monosaccharides is described. The prototypical host 1 features a 1,3,5-substituted 2,4,6-triethylbenzene scaffold bearing three convergent H-bonding units. The binding ability of the t-octyl derivative 1a toward a set of octylglycosides of biologically relevant monosaccharides, including Glc, Gal, Man, and GlcNAc, was investigated by 1H NMR in CDCl3. A protocol for the correct evaluation of binding affinities was established, which can be generally applied for the recognition of monosaccharides by 1H NMR spectroscopy. A three-constant equilibrium model, including 1:1 and 2:1 host-guest association and dimerization of the receptor, was ascertained for the interaction of 1a with all the investigated glycosides. An affinity index, which we defined median binding concentration BC50 in analogy to the IC50 parameter, intended to address the general issue of comparing dimensionally heterogeneous binding data, and a limiting BC0(50)quantity describing intrinsic binding affinities were developed for evaluating the results. BC0(50) values for 1a range from 1 to 6 mM, indicating an intrinsic binding affinity in the millimolar range and a selectivity factor of 5 toward the investigated glycosides. The treatment has been extended to include any generic host-guest system involved in single or multiple binding equilibria.

Novel coordinating motifs for lanthanide(III) ions based on 5-(2-pyridyl)tetrazole and 5-(2-pyridyl-1-oxide)tetrazole. Potential new contrast agents.

Water-soluble and neutral Ln(III) and Zn (II) complexes of pyridine- and (pyridine-1-oxide)tetrazole have been synthesized and the Gd derivatives have great potential as high-relaxivity low-osmolarity MRI contrast agents.

Synthesis, characterization and coordination chemistry of the new tetraazamacrocycle 4,10-dimethyl-1,4,7,10-tetraazacyclododecane-1,7-bis(methanephosphonic acid monoethyl ester) dipotassium salt.

A new potentially hexadentate tetraazamacrocycle based on the cyclen skeleton has been synthesized and fully characterized. The macrocycle 4,10-dimethyl-1,4,7,10-tetraazacyclododecane-1,7-bis(methanephosphonic acid monoethyl ester) dipotassium salt (Me2DO2PME) contains mutually trans monoethyl ester phosphonate acid substituents on two nitrogen atoms, and trans methyl substituents on the other two nitrogen atoms. The protonation constants of this macrocycle and the stability constants of its complexes with Cu2+, Zn2+, Gd3+ and Ca2+ ions have been determined by pH potentiometric titrations. The protonation sequence of the macrocycle has been studied by 1H, 31P[1H] and 13C[1H] NMR spectroscopy: the first and second protonation steps take place at the methyl-substituted nitrogen atoms, while the third protonation involves one oxygen from a phosphonate group. Upon protonation, all the CH2 ring protons become magnetically inequivalent on the NMR time scale due to a slow conformational rearrangement, most likely occasioned by the formation of multiple hydrogen bonds within the macrocyclic ring. Me2DOPM forms neutral, mononuclear complexes with all the metals investigated. The presence of hydroxo complexes was observed for Ca2+ and Zn2+ at high pH values. Structural information on the neutral complex [Cu(Me2DO2PME)] has been obtained by a solution X-Band EPR study. It is proposed that Me2DO2PME binds Cu2+ in a distorted octahedral structure using all of its donor atoms, i.e. the four nitrogen atoms and the two phosphonate oxygen atoms. The redox chemistry of [Cu(Me2DO2PME)] in dimethyl sulfoxide and water has been studied by electrochemical measurements. Cyclic voltammetry in DMSO shows the complex to undergo a quasireversible one-electron reduction step leading to an unstable CuI species.

Determination of protonation constants of some fluorinated polyamines by means of 13C NMR data processed by the new computer program HypNMR2000. Protonation sequence in polyamines.

The p K(a) values of 6-fluoro-4,8-diazadodecane-1,12-diamine (6-fluorospermine) (1), 6,6-difluoro-4,8-diazadodecane-1,12-diamine (6,6-difluorospermine) (2), 6-fluoro-4-azaoctane-1,8-diamine (6-fluorospermidine) (3) and 6,6-difluoro-4-azaoctane-1,8-diamine (6,6-difluorospermidine) (4) in D(2)O solution have been determined at 40 degrees C from (13)C NMR chemical shifts data using the new computer program HypNMR2000. The enthalpies of protonation of compounds 1-4 and the parent amines spermine (5) and spermidine (6) have been determined from microcalorimetric titration data. The values of Delta H degrees were used to derive basicity constants relative to 25 degrees C. The NMR data have been analysed by two different methods to obtain information on the protonation sequence in the polyamines 1-5. The protonation sequence for spermine is related to its biological activity.

Complexation of beryllium(II) ion by phosphinate ligands in aqueous solution. Synthesis and XRPD structure determination of Be[(PhPO2)2CH2](H2O)2.

Two bifunctional ligands, phenyl(carboxymethyl)phosphinate (ccp(2-) and P,P'-diphenylmethylenediphosphinate (pcp(2-)), have been tested as chelating agents of beryllium(II). Both ligands have the same charge and a similar chelating structure, but whereas the 1:1 adduct of pcp(2-), Be(pcp)(H(2)O)(2), could be isolated as a white powder, no pure compound could be isolated from solutions containing beryllium(II) and ccp(2-). Instead, the solutions were examined by means of potentiometry and (9)Be NMR spectroscopy. Analysis of the potentiometric titration data with the program HYPERQUAD suggested the formation of the complex species BeL, [BeHL](+), [BeL(2)](2-), and [BeHL(2)](-) (L = ccp). The formation constants for these species were determined at 25 degrees C and I = 0.5 mol dm(-3) NaClO(4). The (9)Be NMR spectra are consistent with this model. The formation constants found for the ccp(2-) complexes are lower than those reported for related phosphonate ligands. However, the effective stability constant (which gives a better indication of the intrinsic coordinating capacity of the ligand at a particular pH) of the complex [Be(ccp)(2)](2-) at pH < 4 is greater than the effective constants of the corresponding phosphonoacetate and methylenediphosphonate complexes. The structure of Be(pcp)(H(2)O)(2) was determined by X-ray powder diffraction methods and consists of discrete molecules interconnected by an extended 2D network of hydrogen bonds, resulting in a stacking of doublelayers with a polar core and a lipophilic surface. Crystal data: C(13)H(16)BeO(6)P(2), fw 339.21, monoclinic P2(1)/c, a = 16.174(1) A, b = 8.979(1) A, c = 10.929(1) A, beta = 90.398(9) degrees, V = 1587.2(3) A(3), Z = 4.

Different complexation properties of some hydroxy keto heterocycles toward beryllium(II) in aqueous solutions: experimental and theoretical studies.

Four heterocycles containing hydroxy and keto functionalities have been tested as chelating agents of beryllium(II). These are in the order (i) 3-hydroxy-2-methyl-4H-pyran-4-one (maltol, Hma), (ii) 5-hydroxy-2-(hydroxymethyl)-4H-pyran-4-one (kojic acid, Hka), (iii) 3-hydroxy-1,2-dimethyl-4-pyridinone (Hdpp), (iv) 1-(3-hydroxy-2-furanyl)ethanone (isomaltol, Hima). Although the skeletons of the first three species, with one nitrogen or oxygen heteroatom at the six-membered ring, are almost superimposable, straightforward synthesis and crystallization is achieved only for the 1:2 adduct Be(dpp)(2), 1. Also the complex Be(ima)(2), 2, precipitates in high yield but the ima(-) ligand has a different skeletal structure. X-ray determinations of 1 and 2 showed that the Be(2+) ion is pseudotetrahedrally coordinated by two chelating ligands with slightly asymmetric Be-O(alkoxo) and Be-O(keto) bonds. The complex Be(ma)(2) precipitates in low yields together with large amounts of unreacted Hma while, under the same conditions, no trace of the analogous species Be(ka)(2) has been observed. This paper presents the results of potentiometric and NMR studies in the aqueous solutions as well as of DFT structural optimizations for all of the free acids, their associated bases, and the adducts of the type [BeL(H(2)O)(2)](+) and BeL(2) in the gas phase. It is consistently found that the basicity of the ligands and the stability of their complexes decrease in the order dpp(-) > ma(-) > ka(-) > ima(-). In solution, all of the anionic ligands form adducts of the type [BeL(H(2)O)(2)](+) at low pH values, whereas higher concentrations of the free anion are required to form 1:2 adducts. The pH, the basicity, and the stability constants of the complexes as well as the formation of competing beryllium hydroxide species are strictly correlated factors for the obtainment of the latter type of adduct. The DFT calculations account nicely for the different donor powers of the various chelates in terms of electronic redistribution and associated energetics.