Lateral (Parasagittal) Fluid Percussion Model of Traumatic Brain Injury.

Fluid percussion was first conceptualized in the 1940s and has evolved into one of the leading laboratory methods for studying experimental traumatic brain injury (TBI). Over the decades, fluid percussion has been used in numerous species and today is predominantly applied to the rat. The fluid percussion technique rapidly injects a small volume of fluid, such as isotonic saline, through a circular craniotomy onto the intact dura overlying the brain cortex. In brief, the methods involve surgical production of a circular craniotomy, attachment of a fluid-filled conduit between the dura overlying the cortex and the outlet port of the fluid percussion device. A fluid pulse is then generated by the free-fall of a pendulum striking a piston on the fluid-filled cylinder of the device. The fluid enters the cranium, producing a compression and displacement of the brain parenchyma resulting in a sharp, high magnitude elevation of intracranial pressure that is propagated diffusely through the brain. This results in an immediate and transient period of traumatic unconsciousness as well as a combination of focal and diffuse damage to the brain, which is evident upon histological and behavioral analysis. Numerous studies have demonstrated that the rat fluid percussion model reproduces a wide range of pathological features associated with human TBI.

Acute Temporal Profiles of Serum Levels of UCH-L1 and GFAP and Relationships to Neuronal and Astroglial Pathology following Traumatic Brain Injury in Rats.

A number of potential traumatic brain injury (TBI) biomarkers have been proposed and evaluated in the laboratory and clinic. This study investigated the temporal profile of circulating biomarkers of astrocytic and neuronal injury over the first 24 h and relevant histopathological changes after experimental moderate TBI. Twenty male rats were randomly assigned to either moderate parasagittal fluid percussion or sham injury. Blood serum samples were collected 2 d prior to TBI (baseline) and at 3, 6, and 24 h after TBI. A single cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) sample was collected from the cisterna magna 24 h after TBI, followed by euthanasia and brain harvesting for histology. Serum and CSF samples were analyzed for neuronal (ubiquitin carboxy-terminal hydrolase L1 [UCH-L1]) and astroglial (glial fibrillary acidic protein [GFAP]) protein levels using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Brain histology included GFAP immunostaining and Fluoro-Jade histofluorescence. Serum and CSF levels of GFAP were near zero in sham animals. Serum GFAP levels were significantly elevated at 3 and 6 h post-TBI, compared with baseline and time-matched sham values, while UCH-L1 was significantly elevated only at 3 h post-TBI. Both CSF GFAP and UCH-L1 at 24 h post-TBI were significantly elevated, compared with sham. GFAP immunohistochemistry and FJ histofluorescence of degenerating neurons were performed in the same animals after 24 h survival. Histology revealed characteristic acute neuronal degeneration in the ipsilateral hippocampus and parietal cortex and reduction in GFAP immunostaining in areas of neuronal cell loss. The data provide evidence of a causal relationship between TBI-induced acute brain pathology and circulating neuronal and glial markers, further demonstrating their role as candidate markers for TBI. Studies of relative changes in biomarker levels in CSF and serum suggest that different mechanisms may underlie the transport and/or clearance of UCH-L1 and GFAP in these two compartments.

Inhibition of SRC family kinases protects hippocampal neurons and improves cognitive function after traumatic brain injury.

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is often associated with intracerebral and intraventricular hemorrhage. Thrombin is a neurotoxin generated at bleeding sites fater TBI and can lead to cell death and subsequent cognitive dysfunction via activation of Src family kinases (SFKs). We hypothesize that inhibiting SFKs can protect hippocampal neurons and improve cognitive memory function after TBI. To test these hypotheses, we show that moderate lateral fluid percussion (LFP) TBI in adult rats produces bleeding into the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) in both lateral ventricles, which elevates oxyhemoglobin and thrombin levels in the CSF, activates the SFK family member Fyn, and increases Rho-kinase 1(ROCK1) expression. Systemic administration of the SFK inhibitor, PP2, immediately after moderate TBI blocks ROCK1 expression, protects hippocampal CA2/3 neurons, and improves spatial memory function. These data suggest the possibility that inhibiting SFKs after TBI might improve clinical outcomes.

Amantadine improves cognitive outcome and increases neuronal survival after fluid percussion traumatic brain injury in rats.

This study evaluated the effects of clinically relevant concentrations of amantadine (AMT) on cognitive outcome and hippocampal cell survival in adult rats after lateral fluid percussion traumatic brain injury (TBI). AMT is an antagonist of the N-methyl-D-aspartate-type glutamate receptor, increases dopamine release, blocks dopamine reuptake, and has an inhibitory effect on microglial activation and neuroinflammation. Currently, AMT is clinically used as an antiparkinsonian drug. Amantadine or saline control was administered intraperitoneally, starting at 1 h after TBI followed by dosing three times daily for 16 consecutive days at 15, 45, and 135 mg/kg/day. Terminal blood draws were obtained from TBI rats at the time of euthanasia at varying time points after the last amantadine dose. Pharmacokinetics analysis confirmed that the doses of AMT achieved serum concentrations similar to those observed in humans receiving therapeutic doses (100-400 mg/day). Acquisition of spatial learning and memory retention was assessed using the Morris water maze (MWM) on days 12-16 after TBI. Brain tissues were collected and stained with Cresyl-violet for long-term cell survival analysis. Treatment with 135mg/kg/day of AMT improved acquisition of learning and terminal cognitive performance on MWM. The 135-mg/kg/day dosing of AMT increased the numbers of surviving CA2-CA3 pyramidal neurons at day 16 post-TBI. Overall, the data showed that clinically relevant dosing schedules of AMT affords neuroprotection and significantly improves cognitive outcome after experimental TBI, suggesting that it has the potential to be developed as a novel treatment of human TBI.

Effect of fish oil supplementation in a rat model of multiple mild traumatic brain injuries.

PURPOSE: Repetitive mild traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a major military and sports health concern. The purpose of this study was to determine if a diet rich in omega-3 fatty acids would reduce cognitive deficits and neuronal cell death in a novel fluid percussion rat model of repetitive mild TBIs. METHODS: Thirty-two Sprague-Dawley rats were assigned to either an experimental rat chow enhanced with 6% fish oil (source of omega-3 fatty acids) or a control rat chow. Both rat chows contained equivalent quantities of calories, oil, and nutrients. After four weeks, both groups received mild repetitive bilateral fluid percussion TBIs on two sequential days. Pre-injury diets were resumed, and the animals were monitored for two weeks. On post-injury days 10-14, Morris Water Maze testing was performed to assess spatial learning and cognitive function. Animals were euthanized at 14 days post-injury to obtain specimens for neurohistopathology. RESULTS: There was no difference in pre-injury weight gain between groups. Post-injury, animals on the fish oil diet lost less weight and recovered their weight significantly faster. By 14 days, the fish oil diet group performed significantly better in the Morris Water Maze. Neurohistopathology identified a non-significant trend toward a higher density of hippocampal neurons in the fish oil diet group. CONCLUSIONS: Pre-injury dietary supplementation with fish oil improves recovery of body weight and provides a small improvement in cognitive performance in a rat model of multiple mild TBIs.

NAAG peptidase inhibitor improves motor function and reduces cognitive dysfunction in a model of TBI with secondary hypoxia.

Immediately following traumatic brain injury (TBI) and TBI with hypoxia, there is a rapid and pathophysiological increase in extracellular glutamate, subsequent neuronal damage and ultimately diminished motor and cognitive function. N-acetyl-aspartyl glutamate (NAAG), a prevalent neuropeptide in the CNS, is co-released with glutamate, binds to the presynaptic group II metabotropic glutamate receptor subtype 3 (mGluR3) and suppresses glutamate release. However, the catalytic enzyme glutamate carboxypeptidase II (GCP II) rapidly hydrolyzes NAAG into NAA and glutamate. Inhibition of the GCP II enzyme with NAAG peptidase inhibitors reduces the concentration of glutamate both by increasing the duration of NAAG activity on mGluR3 and by reducing degradation into NAA and glutamate resulting in reduced cell death in models of TBI and TBI with hypoxia. In the following study, rats were administered the NAAG peptidase inhibitor PGI-02776 (10mg/kg) 30 min following TBI combined with a hypoxic second insult. Over the two weeks following injury, PGI-02776-treated rats had significantly improved motor function as measured by increased duration on the rota-rod and a trend toward improved performance on the beam walk. Furthermore, two weeks post-injury, PGI-02776-treated animals had a significant decrease in latency to find the target platform in the Morris water maze as compared to vehicle-treated animals. These findings demonstrate that the application of NAAG peptidase inhibitors can reduce the deleterious motor and cognitive effects of TBI combined with a second hypoxic insult in the weeks following injury.

Evaluation of metric, topological, and temporal ordering memory tasks after lateral fluid percussion injury.

Impairments in learning and memory occur in as many as 50% of patients following traumatic brain injury (TBI). Similar impairments occur in rodent models of TBI, and the development of new memory testing procedures provides an opportunity to examine how TBI affects memory processing in specific neural memory systems. Specifically, metric, topological, and temporal ordering tasks are object-based tests for memory of spatial orientation and temporal sequencing working memory developed for use in rodents. Previous studies demonstrated that specific lesions of the dentate gyrus/CA3 of the hippocampus and the parietal cortex resulted in deficits in the metric and topological spatial orientation tasks, respectively. Lesions of the CA1 impaired a rat's ability to recall the temporal order of odors. The purpose of the following study was to determine whether moderate lateral fluid percussion TBI would generate deficits in these working memory tasks, and whether observed deficits were associated with cell loss in the CA2/3 and/or CA1 of the hippocampus. Two weeks following a moderate lateral fluid percussion TBI, adult rats demonstrated significant deficits in both the metric and temporal ordering tasks (p<0.05) but not in the topological task. Stereological analysis identified a significant reduction in neurons in the CA2/3 (p<0.05) but not the CA1 of the hippocampus. These data demonstrate the utility of three object-based tasks to expand our understanding of how different neural memory systems are affected by TBI.

NAAG peptidase inhibitor reduces cellular damage in a model of TBI with secondary hypoxia.

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) leads to a rapid and excessive glutamate elevation in the extracellular milieu, resulting in neuronal degeneration and astrocyte damage. Posttraumatic hypoxia is a clinically relevant secondary insult that increases the magnitude and duration of glutamate release following TBI. N-acetyl-aspartyl glutamate (NAAG), a prevalent neuropeptide in the CNS, suppresses presynaptic glutamate release by its action at the mGluR3 (a group II metabotropic glutamate receptor). However, extracellular NAAG is rapidly converted into NAA and glutamate by the catalytic enzyme glutamate carboxypeptidase II (GCPII) reducing presynaptic inhibition. We previously reported that the GCPII inhibitor ZJ-43 and its prodrug di-ester PGI-02776 reduce the deleterious effects of excessive extracellular glutamate when injected systemically within the first 30 min following injury. We now report that PGI-02776 (10mg/kg) is neuroprotective when administered 30 min post-injury in a model of TBI plus 30 min of hypoxia (FiO(2)=11%). 24h following TBI with hypoxia, significant increases in neuronal cell death in the CA1, CA2/3, CA3c, hilus and dentate gyrus were observed in the ipsilateral hippocampus. Additionally, there was a significant reduction in the number of astrocytes in the ipsilateral CA1, CA2/3 and in the CA3c/hilus/dentate gyrus. Administration of PGI-02776 immediately following the cessation of hypoxia significantly reduced neuronal and astrocytic cell death across all regions of the hippocampus. These findings indicate that NAAG peptidase inhibitors administered post-injury can significantly reduce the deleterious effects of TBI combined with a secondary hypoxic insult.

Post-traumatic hypoxia exacerbates neuronal cell death in the hippocampus.

Hypoxia frequently occurs in patients with traumatic brain injury (TBI) and is associated with increased morbidity and mortality. This study examined the effects of immediate or delayed post-traumatic hypoxia (fraction of inspired oxygen [FiO(2)] 11%) on acute neuronal degeneration and long-term neuronal survival in hippocampal fields after moderate fluid percussion injury in rats. In Experiment 1, hypoxia was induced for 15 or 30 min alone or immediately following TBI. In Experiments 2 and 3, 30 min of hypoxia was induced immediately after TBI or delayed until 60 min after TBI. In Experiment 1, acute neurodegeneration was evaluated in the hippocampal fields 24 h after insults using Fluoro-Jade staining and stereological quantification. During hypoxia alone, or in combination with TBI, mean arterial blood pressure was significantly reduced by approximately 30%, followed by a rapid return to normal values upon return to pre-injury FiO(2). Hypoxia alone failed to cause hippocampal neuronal degeneration when measured at 24 h after insult. TBI alone resulted in neuronal degeneration in each ipsilateral hippocampal field, predominantly in CA2-CA3 and the dentate gyrus. Compared to TBI alone, TBI plus immediate hypoxia for either 15 or 30 min significantly increased neuronal loss in most ipsilateral hippocampal fields and in the contralateral hilus and dentate gyrus. In Experiment 2, TBI plus hypoxia delayed 30 min significantly increased degeneration only in ipsilateral CA2-CA3. In Experiment 3, 30 min of immediate hypoxia significantly reduced the numbers of surviving neurons in the CA3 at 14 days after TBI. The greatly increased vulnerability in all hippocampal fields by immediate 30 min post-traumatic hypoxia provides a relevant model of TBI complicated with hypoxia/hypotension. These data underscore the significance of the secondary insult, the necessity to better characterize the range of injuries experienced by the TBI patient, and the importance of strictly avoiding hypoxia in the early management of TBI patients.

Post-injury administration of NAAG peptidase inhibitor prodrug, PGI-02776, in experimental TBI.

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) leads to a rapid and excessive increase in glutamate concentration in the extracellular milieu, which is strongly associated with excitotoxicity and neuronal degeneration. N-acetylaspartylglutamate (NAAG), a prevalent peptide neurotransmitter in the vertebrate nervous system, is released along with glutamate and suppresses glutamate release by actions at pre-synaptic metabotropic glutamate autoreceptors. Extracellular NAAG is hydrolyzed to N-acetylaspartate and glutamate by peptidase activity. In the present study PGI-02776, a newly designed di-ester prodrug of the urea-based NAAG peptidase inhibitor ZJ-43, was tested for neuroprotective potential when administered intraperitoneally 30 min after lateral fluid percussion TBI in the rat. Stereological quantification of hippocampal CA2-3 degenerating neurons at 24 h post injury revealed that 10 mg/kg PGI-02776 significantly decreased the number of degenerating neurons (p<0.05). Both average latency analysis of Morris water maze performance and assessment of 24-hour memory retention revealed significant differences between sham-TBI and TBI-saline. In contrast, no significant difference was found between sham-TBI and PGI-02776 treated groups in either analysis indicating an improvement in cognitive performance with PGI-02776 treatment. Histological analysis on day 16 post-injury revealed significant cell death in injured animals regardless of treatment. In vitro NAAG peptidase inhibition studies demonstrated that the parent compound (ZJ-43) exhibited potent inhibitory activity while the mono-ester (PGI-02749) and di-ester (PGI-02776) prodrug compounds exhibited moderate and weak levels of inhibitory activity, respectively. Pharmacokinetic assays in uninjured animals found that the di-ester (PGI-02776) crossed the blood-brain barrier. PGI-02776 was also readily hydrolyzed to both the mono-ester (PGI-02749) and the parent compound (ZJ-43) in both blood and brain. Overall, these findings suggest that post-injury treatment with the ZJ-43 prodrug PGI-02776 reduces both acute neuronal pathology and longer term cognitive deficits associated with TBI.

Does ketogenic diet alter seizure sensitivity and cell loss following fluid percussion injury?

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) frequently leads to epilepsy. The process of epileptogenesis - the development of that seizure state - is still poorly understood, and effective antiepileptogenic treatments have yet to be identified. The ketogenic diet (KD) has been shown to be effective as an antiepileptic therapy, but has not been extensively tested for its efficacy in preventing the development of the seizure state, and certainly not within the context of TBI-induced epileptogenesis. We have used a rat model of TBI - fluid percussion injury (FPI) - to test the hypothesis that KD treatment is antiepileptogenic and protects the brain from neuronal cell loss following TBI. Rats fed a KD had a higher seizure threshold (longer latency to flurothyl-induced seizure activity) than rats fed a standard diet (SD); this effect was seen when KD was in place at the time of seizure testing (3 and 6 weeks following FPI), but was absent when KD had been replaced by SD at time of testing. FPI caused significant hippocampal cell loss in both KD-fed and SD-fed rats; the degree of cell loss appeared to be reduced by KD treatment before FPI but not after FPI. These results are consistent with prior demonstrations that KD raises seizure threshold, but do not provide support for the hypothesis that KD administered for a limited time directly before or after FPI alters later seizure sensitivity; that is, within the limits of this model and protocol, there is no evidence for KD-induced antiepileptogenesis.

HDAC inhibitor increases histone H3 acetylation and reduces microglia inflammatory response following traumatic brain injury in rats.

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) produces a rapid and robust inflammatory response in the brain characterized in part by activation of microglia. A novel histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitor, 4-dimethylamino-N-[5-(2-mercaptoacetylamino)pentyl]benzamide (DMA-PB), was administered (0, 0.25, 2.5, 25 mg/kg) systemically immediately after lateral fluid percussion TBI in rats. Hippocampal CA2/3 tissue was processed for acetyl-histone H3 immunolocalization, OX-42 immunolocalization (for microglia), and Fluoro-Jade B histofluorescence (for degenerating neurons) at 24 h after injury. Vehicle-treated TBI rats exhibited a significant reduction in acetyl-histone H3 immunostaining in the ipsilateral CA2/3 hippocampus compared to the sham TBI group (p<0.05). The reduction in acetyl-histone H3 immunostaining was attenuated by each of the DMA-PB dosage treatment groups. Vehicle-treated TBI rats exhibited a high density of phagocytic microglia in the ipsilateral CA2/3 hippocampus compared to sham TBI in which none were observed. All doses of DMA-PB significantly reduced the density of phagocytic microglia (p<0.05). There was a trend for DMA-PB to reduce the number of degenerating neurons in the ipsilateral CA2/3 hippocampus (p=0.076). We conclude that the HDAC inhibitor DMA-PB is a potential novel therapeutic for inhibiting neuroinflammation associated with TBI.

NAAG peptidase inhibitor increases dialysate NAAG and reduces glutamate, aspartate and GABA levels in the dorsal hippocampus following fluid percussion injury in the rat.

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) produces a rapid and excessive elevation in extracellular glutamate that induces excitotoxic brain cell death. The peptide neurotransmitter N-acetylaspartylglutamate (NAAG) is reported to suppress neurotransmitter release through selective activation of presynaptic group II metabotropic glutamate receptors. Therefore, strategies to elevate levels of NAAG following brain injury could reduce excessive glutamate release associated with TBI. We hypothesized that the NAAG peptidase inhibitor, ZJ-43 would elevate extracellular NAAG levels and reduce extracellular levels of amino acid neurotransmitters following TBI by a group II metabotropic glutamate receptor (mGluR)-mediated mechanism. Dialysate levels of NAAG, glutamate, aspartate and GABA from the dorsal hippocampus were elevated after TBI as measured by in vivo microdialysis. Dialysate levels of NAAG were higher and remained elevated in the ZJ-43 treated group (50 mg/kg, i.p.) compared with control. ZJ-43 treatment also reduced the rise of dialysate glutamate, aspartate, and GABA levels. Co-administration of the group II mGluR antagonist, LY341495 (1 mg/kg, i.p.) partially blocked the effects of ZJ-43 on dialysate glutamate and GABA, suggesting that NAAG effects are mediated through mGluR activation. The results are consistent with the hypothesis that inhibition of NAAG peptidase may reduce excitotoxic events associated with TBI.