Long term plant biomonitoring in the vicinity of waste incinerators in The Netherlands.

Since the mid-nineties new waste incineration plants have come into operation in the Netherlands. Burning of waste can result in the emission of potentially toxic compounds. Although the incineration plants must comply with strict conditions concerning emission control, public concern on the possible impact on human health and the environment still exists. Multiple year (2004-2013) biomonitoring programs were set up around three waste incinerators for early detection of possible effects of stack emissions on the quality of crops and agricultural products. The results showed that the emissions did not affect the quality of crops and cow milk. Concentrations of heavy metals, PAHs and dioxins/PCBs were generally similar to background levels and did not exceed standards for maximum allowable concentrations in foodstuffs (e.g. vegetables and cow milk). Some exceedances of the fluoride standard for cattle feed were found almost every year in the maximum deposition areas of two incinerators. Biomonitoring with leafy vegetables can be used to monitor the real impact of these emissions on agricultural crops and to communicate with all stakeholders.

Effects of ambient air pollution on respiratory tract complaints and airway inflammation in primary school children.

Respiratory health effects of ambient air pollution were studied in 605 school children 9 to 13 years in Eskisehir, Turkey. Each child performed a fractional exhaled nitric oxide (FENO) measurement and a lung function test (LFT). Self-reported respiratory tract complaints (having cold, complaints of throat, runny nose and shortness of breath/wheezing) in the last 7 days and on the day of testing were also recorded. As acute health outcomes were investigated, weekly average ambient concentrations of ozone (O3), nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and sulfur dioxide (SO2) were determined by passive sampling in the school playgrounds simultaneously with the health survey. Effects of air pollution on respiratory tract complaints and exhaled NO/lung function were estimated by multivariate logistic regression and multivariate linear mixed effects models, respectively. Upper respiratory tract complaints were significantly (p<0.05) associated with weekly average O3 concentrations during the health survey (adjusted odds ratios (OR) of 1.21 and 1.28 for a 10 µgm(-3) increment for having cold and a runny nose on day of testing, respectively). FENO levels were significantly (p<0.05) increased in children with various upper respiratory tract complaints (ratio in FENO varied between 1.16 and 1.40). No significant change in FENO levels was detected in association with any of the measured pollutants (p ≥ 0.05). Lung function was not associated with upper respiratory tract complaints and FENO levels. Peak Expiratory Flow (PEF) levels were negatively associated with weekly average O3 levels for children without upper respiratory tract complaints. In summary, elevated levels of air pollutants increased respiratory tract complaints in children.

Cytogenetic biomonitoring of primary school children exposed to air pollutants: micronuclei analysis of buccal epithelial cells.

There is an increasing attempt in the world to determine the exposures of children to environmental chemicals. To analyze the genotoxic effect of air pollution, micronucleus (MN) assay was carried out in buccal epithelial cells (BECs) of children living in an urban city of Turkey. Children from two schools at urban-traffic and suburban sites were investigated in summer and winter seasons for the determination of BEC-MN frequency (per mille) and frequency of BEC with MN (per mille). The same children were also recruited for lung function measurements within a MATRA project ("Together Towards Clean Air in Eskisehir and Iskenderun") Measured NO2 and SO2 concentrations did not exceed the European Union (EU) limit levels either in urban-traffic or suburban regions. Higher O3 concentrations were measured in the suburban site especially in the summer period. Particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10) levels which did not differ statistically between two regions were above the EU limits in general. Although BEC-MN frequencies of children living in the suburban sites were higher in general, the difference between two regions was not significant either in the summer or winter periods. BEC-MN frequencies of the urban-traffic children were found to be significantly higher in summer period (mean ± SD, 2.68 ± 1.99) when compared to winter period (1.64 ± 1.59; p = 0.004). On the other hand, no seasonality was observed for the suburban children. Similar results have been obtained in the BEC frequency with MN in our study. In summer, BEC-MN frequencies were significantly increased with the decrease in pulmonary function levels based on forced expiratory flow between 25 and 75% of vital capacity (FEF25-75%) levels (p < 0.05). As a conclusion, children living in urban-traffic and suburban areas in the city of Eskisehir exhibited similar genotoxicity. Seasonal variation in genotoxicity may be interpreted as relatively high ozone levels and increasing time spent at outdoors in the summer.

Effects of air pollution on lung function and symptoms of asthma, rhinitis and eczema in primary school children.

Health effects of ambient air pollution were studied in three groups of schoolchildren living in areas (suburban, urban and urban-traffic) with different air pollution levels in Eskisehir, Turkey. This study involved 1,880 students aged between 9 and 13 years from 16 public primary schools. This two-season study was conducted from January 2008 through March 2009. Symptoms of asthma, rhinitis and eczema were determined by the International Study of Asthma and Allergies in Childhood questionnaire in 2008. Two lung function tests were performed by each child for summer and winter seasons with simultaneous ambient air measurements of ozone (O3), nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and sulfur dioxide (SO2) by passive sampling. Effects of air pollution on impaired lung function and symptoms in schoolchildren were estimated by multivariate logistic regression analyses. Girls with impaired lung function (only for the summer season evaluation) were more observed in suburban and urban areas when compared to urban-traffic area ([odds ratio (OR) = 1.49; 95 % confidence interval (CI) 1.04-2.14] and [OR = 1.69 (95 % CI 1.06-2.71)] for suburban vs. urban-traffic and urban vs. urban-traffic, respectively). Significant association between ambient ozone concentrations and impaired lung function (for an increase of 10 µg m(-3)) was found only for girls for the summer season evaluation [OR = 1.11 (95 % CI 1.03-1.19)]. No association was found for boys and for the winter season evaluation. No association was found between any of the measured air pollutants and symptoms of current wheeze, current rhinoconjunctivitis and current itchy rash. The results of this study showed that increasing ozone concentrations may cause a sub-acute impairment in lung function of school aged children.

Evaluation of air quality by passive and active sampling in an urban city in Turkey: current status and spatial analysis of air pollution exposure.

Concentrations of air pollutants, nitrogen dioxide (NO(2)), sulfur dioxide (SO(2)), ozone (O(3)), particulate matter (PM(2.5) and PM(10)), trace metals, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were measured in 2008 and 2009 in the city of Eskisehir, central Turkey. Spatial distributions of NO(2), SO(2), and ozone were determined by passive sampling campaigns carried out during two different seasons with fairly large spatial coverage. A basic population exposure assessment was carried out employing Geographical Information System techniques by combining population density maps with pollutant distribution maps of NO(2) and SO(2). It was found that 95 % of the population is exposed to NO(2) levels close to the World Health Organization guideline value. Regarding SO(2), a large proportion of the population (83 %) is exposed to levels above the WHO second interim target value. Concentrations of all the pollutants showed a seasonal pattern increasing in winter period, except for ozone having higher concentrations in summer season. Daily PM(10) and PM(2.5) concentrations exceeded European Union limit values almost every sampling day. Toxic fractions of the measured PAHs were calculated and approximately fourfold increase was observed in winter period. Copper, Pb, Sn, As, Cd, Zn, Sb, and Se were found to be moderately to highly enriched in PM(10) fraction, indicating anthropogenic input to those elements measured. Exposure assessment results indicate the need for action to reduce pollutant emissions especially in the city center. Passive sampling turns out to be a practical and economical tool for air quality assessment with large spatial coverage.

Determination of exposure to benzene, toluene and xylenes in Turkish primary school children by analysis of breath and by environmental passive sampling.

Benzene, toluene, m/p-xylene and o-xylene (BTX) are toxic volatile organic compounds and ubiquitous air pollutants. Smoking and consumer products are indoor sources of BTX, whereas traffic and industrial activities are primary sources contributing to outdoor levels of BTX. The aim of this study was to characterize exposure of children to BTX by personal air sampling using diffusive samplers and by analysis of end-exhaled air. For this study, 101 children of 10-11 years of age were recruited from four primary schools in Southern Turkey during the warm season (May 2008). Two schools were situated in a residential area near primary and secondary iron and steel works (Payas) and two schools were located in a non-industrialized city (Iskenderun). The children and their parents were visited at home for an interview and to identify possible sources of BTX in the residence. Median concentrations of benzene determined by diffusive samplers were higher in Payas (4.1 microg/m(3)) than in Iskenderun (2.7 microg/m(3), p<0.001). For toluene, no differences were observed, whereas for xylene isomers air concentrations tended to be lower for children living in Payas. The median end-exhaled air concentrations were 8.2, 29, 3.8, and 5.7 pmol/L for benzene, toluene, m/p-xylene and o-xylene, respectively (Payas), and 6.9, 25, 4.9, and 6.0 pmol/L, respectively (Iskenderun). Concentrations of toluene in end-exhaled air were 50% higher in children living with household members who smoked indoors (p<0.05) and benzene in end-exhaled air was more than 3-fold higher for those children who were exposed to tobacco smoke inside a vehicle (p<0.001). End-exhaled concentrations of benzene were also higher in children living in a residence with an attached garage (p<0.05). These exposure modifying factors were not identified when using the results obtained with diffusive samplers.